1) The diagram shows a glass cone with a cylindrical hole in the middle. The radius of the hole is 1/5 the radius of the cone. How much glass was used to make the cone, with a hole in the middle, as shown in the diagram?
2) Find y
2 B -2
A -1 C
0 1 -4
3) on the diagram above find A,B, and C
17 X 7
12 22 Z
W Y 27
4) on the diagram above find W,X,Y,Z
5) find h
6) find D
7) The South America Amazon River is about 4000mi. How many feet is the Amazon River?
8)write as a power of 10.
A nanosecond is 0.000000001 of a second
9) When a cricket chirps n times per minute, you can find the temperature F in F= n/4 + 37. Write down a formula to find the number of times a cricket chirps per minute when you know the temperature.
10) A ball is dropped from a height of 64 ft. Each bounce the ball reaches a height that is half the height of the previous bounce. After which bounce will the ball rebound to a maximum height of 6 in ?
11) Elizabeth visits her friend Andrew and then returns home by the same route. She always walks 2km/h when going uphill, 6km/h when going downhill and 3km/h when on level ground. If her total walking time is 6 hours, then what is the total distance she walks in km?
12) Flora had an average of 56% on her first 7 exams. What would she have to make on her eighth exam to obtain an average of 60% on 8 exams?
13) Ian was entering a Math contest for Grade 9. He was working on this particular problem. He was having difficulty with the answer. This was the problem: The integers greater than 1 are arranged, four in each row, in 5 columns, as follows:
a b c d e
2 3 4 5
9 8 7 6
10 11 12 13
17 16 15 14
If he followed the pattern what column would the number 1002 fall in?
14)Stephanie wasn't very keen on Algebra. Her teacher gave her an Algebra problem and told Stephanie to solve it. She was having problems, can you help her?
3x + 7 = x2 + k = 7x + 15
What is the value of k?
15)Why 1 + 1 = 2?
Saturday, January 20, 2007
Thursday, January 11, 2007
Battojutsu
Battōjutsu (抜刀術, Battōjutsu?) is a Japanese term meaning techniques for drawing a sword. It is often used interchangeably with the terms iaijutsu, battōdō, or iaidō, although each term does have nuances in the Japanese language and different schools of Japanese martial arts may use them to differentiate between techniques (e.g. standing or sitting techniques). The emphasis of training in battōjutsu is on quickly and correctly drawing the sword, striking, and returning the sword to its saya (scabbard/sheath). All terms are somewhat more specific than kenjutsu which more broadly means simply sword techniques, and is often used to refer to techniques where the sword is already out of the saya. Often the emphasis in any form of 'battōjutsu' is on cutting with the draw (i.e. cutting from the saya, rather than first drawing the sword and then engaging an enemy as a separate action).
Comparison with Iaidō, Iaijutsu, etc.
Karl Friday in his book, [[Legacies of the Sword]] discusses the historical usage of various terms in Japanese to describe sword arts. Suffice it to say, that while in English many people may dispute the use of -dō or -jutsu or else ascribe specific differences to the terms battō or iai, these differences are not nearly as clear in the original language and the words are often used interchangably.
History
The origins of drawing the sword from the sheath and cutting on the draw are murky. Although various martial traditions in Japan have legendary founders going back many years, much credit is given to Hayashizaki Jinsuke. He is now enshrined at the Hayashizaki Jinja, a shrine in the Tōhoku region of Japan seen by many modern practitioners as the chief shrine for iai. The concept of battōjutsu may have existed before this time, but it is unclear who was the first person to actually use the term.
Fictional occurrences
In the popular animé and manga series Rurouni Kenshin, the principal hero uses a fictional style of battōjutsu known as Hiten Mitsurugi-Ryū that focuses on the use of "god-like" speed and complex aerial maneuvers.
Outside of Japan
Ryūha, or Japanese martial traditions, which teach battōjutsu are relatively uncommon in Japan, and less common in America and other coutries. This is in contrast to the relatively high degree of availability of open hand training, such as karate and aikidō. Here is a partial list of some of the ryūha taught outside of Japan which include what could be called battōjutsu in the broad sense of drawing and cutting from the saya, although some of them more often use the terms iaidō, iaijutsu, or battōdō.
Listed in the Bugei Ryūha Daijiten (武芸流派大辞典, the Encyclopedia of Martial Arts Traditions) as koryū, or arts developed before the Meiji era.
Musō Jikiden Eishin Ryū -- Traces back to Hasekawa Eishin Ryū, which traces back to the Hayashizaki Ryū Iai of Hayashizaki Junsuke Shigenobu (Late 15th century)
Musō Shinden Ryū -- Traces back to Hasekawa Eishin Ryū, which traces back to the Hayashizaki Ryū Iai of Hayashizaki Junsuke Shigenobu (Late 15th century)
Suio Ryū Iai Kenpō -- Founded around 1600 CE by Mima Yoichizaemon Kagenobu
Shin Shin Sekiguchi Ryū -- Sekiguchi Ryū was founded by Sekiguchi Yorokuuemon Ujimune. Ujimune may have received iai training from Hayashizaki Jinsuke, per the article in Bugei Ryūha Daijiten.
Mugai Ryū -- Founded in 1693 by Tsuji Gettan Sukemochi, who had previously learned Yamaguchi Ryū kenjutsu.
Jigen Ryū -- Founded by Tōgō Hizen-no-kami Shigetada, its lineage traces back through Tenshinshō Jigen Ryū to the Shintō Ryū of Iizasa Chōisai Ienao.
Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō Ryū -- Founded in the 15th Century by Iizasa Chōisai Ienao.
Yagyū Shinkage Ryū -- From the Shinkage Ryū of Yagyū Muneyoshi, who studied under Kamiizumi Nobutsuna in the 16th Century.
Listed in the Bugei Ryūha Daijiten as arts developed after the beginning of the Meiji era.
Toyama Ryū -- Founded in the late 19th, early 20th century to instruct officers at the Toyama Military Academy.
Nakamura Ryu -- Founded by Nakamura Taizaburō in the mid-20th century, who had learned Toyama Ryū at the Toyama Military Academy.
Not listed in the Bugei Ryūha Daijiten:
Enshin Itto Ryu
Fudo Ikken Ryu
Kenjutsu
Kenjutsu (剣術 : けんじゅつ, Kenjutsu?), meaning the craft, art, or science of the sword, is a Japanese martial art that uses a specific methodology to teach the use of the katana (Japanese sword). Generally, kenjutsu takes the form of partnered practice exercised through kata (pre-arranged forms, as opposed to competition, solo, or freestyle practice).
Kenjutsu in conjunction with kata is the core means by which koryū, which are "old" or "traditional" schools of martial arts, train their students to employ the Japanese swords against a variety of classical weapons, while indoctrinating the student in the combative mindset of the school. Therefore, kenjutsu can be seen as an integral aspect of all classical Japanese sword school curricula.
Today most koryū schools continue to employ kenjutsu as part of their curriculum. Some are even thriving on a relatively small scale. Schools (or ryū) such as Yagyū Shinkage-ryū, Kashima Shinto-ryū, Kashima Shin-ryū, Kashima Shinden Jikishinkage-ryū, Hyoho Niten Ichi-ryū are some of the more famous still existing. Some of these schools trace their lineage to the early years of the Tokugawa shogunate. Many other schools can legitimately trace their history from the founder dating back to the 14th century, such as Maniwa Nen-ryū (founded: 1368) or Tatsumi-ryū (founded: Eisho period 1504-1520) or Kashima Shin-ryū (founded: ca. 1450).
Confusion with other practices
Kenjutsu should not be confused with iaidō or iaijutsu, where the former being a modern development with both sporting, artistic, and meditative features. The role of iaijutsu is as a practice performed against an opponent who is visualized most often to be armed with a sword. There is often strong biomechanical symbiosis between the iaijutsu and kenjutsu of most schools. Iaijutsu allows the practitioner to perfect the execution of techniques, body position and displacement which he/she will later employ in his/her kenjutsu without the stresses of a partnered kata. Iaijutsu therefore remains a distinct and yet a complementary practice to kenjutsu in most schools.
Another general distinction between iaijutsu and kenjutsu is the condition of the sword at the start of the kata. In iaijutsu, the sword starts in the sheathed position with the emphasis on the draw as well as the few initial cuts. Traditionally, koryū focus on shifting smoothly in the pace of execution within the iaijutsu kata with little focus is given to the speed of draw. This is contrasted with kenjutsu, were the sword begins unsheathed, and the emphasis is on both attack and defense. This distinction is however not consistent as some kenjutsu kata start with the sword sheathed.
Equipment
The equipment employed in kenjutsu has changed little in almost five hundred years, with most schools employing a ryū-specific bokken (wooden katana). The style of the bokken is often defined by tradition with the design, weight and feeling of the bokken being specifically chosen so as to allow the techniques of the ryū to be effectively executed. Contrast, for example, the very thin and fast Yagyū bokken which suits the quick and light sword work of Yagyū Shinkage-ryū with the relatively heavy and straight Kashima Shin-ryū bokken which has little taper and which lends itself well to the heavy contact inertial style of the Kashima Shin-ryū.
Some schools employ a fukuro shinai (a bamboo sword covered with leather or cloth) under circumstances where the junior student lacks the ability to safely control a bokken at full speed or as a general safety precaution. The practice of using a fukuro shinai was however not adopted from kendo as the invention of the fukuro shinai dates back to the 15th century. Many schools also practice kenjutsu at advanced levels with unsharpened steel or alloy artificial swords, called iaitō.
Nitōjutsu
A distinguishing feature of many kenjutsu syllabus is the use of a paired ōdachi and kodachi/shotō commonly refereed to nitōjutsu or two sword methods. The most famous exponent of [[nitōjutsu was Musashi Miyamoto, (1584 – 1645) the founder of Hyoho Niten Ichi-ryū. Nitōjutsu is not however unique to Hyoho Niten Ichi-ryū, nor was nitōjutsu the creation of Musashi. Both Tenshin Shōden Katori Shinto-ryū were founded in the early Muromachi period (ca. 1447), and Tatsumi-ryu founded Eisho period (1504-1520), contain extensive nitōjutsu curricula while also preceding the establishment of Musashi’s Hyoho Niten Ichi-ryū.
Disciplines
Battojutsu
Nitojutsu
Tojutsu
Kojutsu
taijutsu
Taijutsu (体術, Taijutsu? literally "Body Art") is a term for Japanese martial arts techniques that rely solely on body dynamics as opposed to weapons and other devices. 'A truly dynamic, effective and real-life system of self defense and unarmed combat'.
The following description of the intricacies of the art of Taijutsu is taken with permission from the Harukaze Dojo's Website [1]:
" The Japanese term "Taijutsu" is synonymous with the Art of the Ninja. Taijutsu translates as "True technique of the Body." It usually is associated with the Ancient Japanese Empty Hand Techniques practiced by the Ninja and a few other Ancient Martial Ryuha or lineages. The words are easy enough to understand. However, the Art of the Body is not. Notice the name is not "The Art of the Body Parts." It is simply "The Art of the Body." One Completely Unified Body. This concept goes all the way back to the Chinese origins of the Japanese Martial Arts where the Chinese say : "If One Joint Moves, All Nine Joints Move." This is really profound and difficult to understand on the Physical Level. For example, if you tilt your head slightly, just one joint, your neck, will have moved. So, in order to keep your Structural Integrity intact, every other joint in your body will have to shift slightly. If this does not happen, you will lose the Harmony and Balance between your "In" and "Yo" or Yin and Yang. After that, the flow of your Ki or Internal Energy will not be correct and the skill level of your Taijutsu will become much lower. You will have to depend more on local muscle strength and less on whole body power to accomplish your goals. Ki unites your whole body. It is the only one thing that connects the distant parts together. How else can the power from your foot drive your hand? There is no one muscle or even one nerve that travels that whole distance. Yet, with the proper alignment, you can easily feel the power flow from your feet to your finger tips!"
Taijutsu Techniques
Taijutsu techniques may include strikes, kicks, joint locks, throws such as those found in martial arts like jujutsu, judo and karate, etc. While most of its aspects appear external, the student will find many internal aspects as well.
As an example, here's an excerpt from the Bujinkan-Ninpo-Togakure-ryu ninjutsu curriculum:
Taijutsu (body art/movement)
junan taiso (body conditioning)
taihenjutsu (body movement)
ukemi (Receiving the ground safely)
kaiten (rolling)
tobi (leaping)
dakentaijutsu (striking methods)
koppojutsu (bone attacks)
koshijutsu (muscle attacks)
jutaijutsu (grappling methods)
nage (throws)
hajutsu (escapes)
gyakuwaza (locks and controls)
shimewaza (chokes)
The following description of the intricacies of the art of Taijutsu is taken with permission from the Harukaze Dojo's Website [1]:
" The Japanese term "Taijutsu" is synonymous with the Art of the Ninja. Taijutsu translates as "True technique of the Body." It usually is associated with the Ancient Japanese Empty Hand Techniques practiced by the Ninja and a few other Ancient Martial Ryuha or lineages. The words are easy enough to understand. However, the Art of the Body is not. Notice the name is not "The Art of the Body Parts." It is simply "The Art of the Body." One Completely Unified Body. This concept goes all the way back to the Chinese origins of the Japanese Martial Arts where the Chinese say : "If One Joint Moves, All Nine Joints Move." This is really profound and difficult to understand on the Physical Level. For example, if you tilt your head slightly, just one joint, your neck, will have moved. So, in order to keep your Structural Integrity intact, every other joint in your body will have to shift slightly. If this does not happen, you will lose the Harmony and Balance between your "In" and "Yo" or Yin and Yang. After that, the flow of your Ki or Internal Energy will not be correct and the skill level of your Taijutsu will become much lower. You will have to depend more on local muscle strength and less on whole body power to accomplish your goals. Ki unites your whole body. It is the only one thing that connects the distant parts together. How else can the power from your foot drive your hand? There is no one muscle or even one nerve that travels that whole distance. Yet, with the proper alignment, you can easily feel the power flow from your feet to your finger tips!"
Taijutsu Techniques
Taijutsu techniques may include strikes, kicks, joint locks, throws such as those found in martial arts like jujutsu, judo and karate, etc. While most of its aspects appear external, the student will find many internal aspects as well.
As an example, here's an excerpt from the Bujinkan-Ninpo-Togakure-ryu ninjutsu curriculum:
Taijutsu (body art/movement)
junan taiso (body conditioning)
taihenjutsu (body movement)
ukemi (Receiving the ground safely)
kaiten (rolling)
tobi (leaping)
dakentaijutsu (striking methods)
koppojutsu (bone attacks)
koshijutsu (muscle attacks)
jutaijutsu (grappling methods)
nage (throws)
hajutsu (escapes)
gyakuwaza (locks and controls)
shimewaza (chokes)
ninjutsu
Ninjutsu (忍術, Ninjutsu?) started out as a set of survival skills that were used by groups of people who lived in mountainous regions of Japan They were self-reliant, and had a strong affinity with nature.
The techniques that these mountain folk used to hunt and fight eventually became the strategic base of a new form of martial art ... Ninjutsu. The ninja clans used their art to ensure their survival in a time of violent political turmoil. It also included methods of gathering information, non-detection, avoidance, and misdirection techniques. Ninjutsu can also involve training in disguise, escape, concealment, archery, medicine, and explosives.
Practitioners of ninjutsu have been seen as assassins for hire, and have been associated in the public imagination with other activities which are considered criminal by modern standards. Even though it was influenced by Chinese spying techniques and the strategic principles of Sun Tzu, ninjutsu is believed by its adherents to be of Japanese origin. One version is that the basis of ninjutsu was taught to a Japanese household who fled to the mountains after losing a battle. There they mixed with a varied lot of people including the descendants of refugees who had fled China. Later, the skills were developed over 300 years to create ninjutsu.
Although the popular view is that ninjutsu is the art of secrecy or stealth, actual practitioners consider it to mean the art of enduring - enduring all of life's hardships. The character nin carries both these meanings, and others.
It is true that ninjutsu has a long and myth-filled history, but today almost anyone is allowed to practice modern ninjutsu. As one makes progress in ninjutsu the system gets more sophisticated, and one might realize that the system contains more than fighting skills. To avoid misunderstandings, "ninjutsu" should just refer to a specific branch of Japanese martial arts, unless it is being used in a historical sense.
18 Ninjutsu Skills (Ninja Juhakkei)
The eighteen disciplines were first stated in the scrolls of Togakure-ryū, and they became definitive for all Ninjutsu schools, providing a complete training of the warrior in various fighting arts and complementary disciplines.
However, Ninja Juhakkei was often studied along with Bugei Juhappan (the 18 Samurai fighting art skills). Though some of them are the same, the techniques of each discipline were used with different approaches by both Samurai and Ninja.
The 18 disciplines are:
Seishin-teki kyōyō (spiritual refinement)
Taijutsu (unarmed combat)
Kenjutsu (sword fighting)
Bōjutsu (stick and staff fighting)
Shurikenjutsu (throwing blades)
Sōjutsu (spear fighting)
Naginatajutsu (naginata fighting)
Kusarigamajutsu (chain and sickle weapon)
Kayakujutsu (fire and explosives)
Hensōjutsu (disguise and animal morphing)
Shinobi-iri (stealth and entering methods)
Bajutsu (horsemanship)
Sui-ren (water training)
Bōryaku (military strategy)
Chōhō (espionage)(spying)
Intonjutsu (escaping and concealment)
Tenmon (meteorology and astral projection)
Chi-mon (geography)
Schools of ninjutsu
The Bujinkan Dōjō headed by Masaaki Hatsumi is one of three organizations generally accepted as teaching ninjutsu by the Bujinkan's members (under the name Budo Taijutsu). Hatsumi's Bujinkan Dōjō consists of nine separate schools of allegedly traditional Japanese martial arts, only three of which contain ninjutsu teachings. Hatsumi learned a variety of martial arts, including ninjutsu, from Toshitsugu Takamatsu.
There are two other organizations teaching ninjutsu. These are the Genbukan headed by Shoto Tanemura, who left the Bujinkan in 1984, and the Jinenkan headed by Fumio Manaka, who left later. Both had achieved Menkyo Kaiden before leaving due to differences of opinion with regards to the teaching style.
Other extant traditional martial arts such as the Tenshin Shoden Katori Shintō-ryū contain some aspects of ninjutsu in their curriculum, but are not ninjutsu schools per se.
The espionage techniques of ninjutsu are rarely focused on in recent times, since they serve little purpose to the bulk of modern populations, and tend to attract negative publicity and students with unrealistic expectations.
Another major aspect of authentic ninjitsu training that continues to this day is the wearing of a head dress similar to the islamic hijab. Although in modern times the rules have relaxed somewhat, a ninja can expect sadistic and often inhumane treatment if identified without appropriate ninja dress. The hijab allows the ninja to maintain security of identity (even among friends and relatives), effectively conceal their face from potential enemies and maintain the honour code of the ninja (see also Saving Face).
Other schools
Several other schools of ninjutsu exist, some of which can be traced back to Japanese origins.
Verified Japanese Origins
Israel was one of the first places where Bujinkan ninjutsu was practiced outside Japan, with Doron Navon pioneering it there in 1974. The AKBAN organization uses the Bujinkan curriculum the way it was used when Doron Navon, the first foreign Bujinkan shihan, studied under Hatsumi sensei.
Stephen K. Hayes studied under Masaaki Hatsumi but teaches an Americanized system, To-Shin Do, in his Quest Centers.
Richard Van Donk who was one of the first Foreigners to take the Godan test from Soke Hatsumi in the early 1980s encouraged Hatsumi to do videos of his teachings and helped him distribute them worldwide thereby growing the Ninjutsu art. Richard has been graded to 15th dan from Hatsumi.
The Late Dr. Glenn Morris studied under Masaaki Hatsumi but founded the Hoshin Roshi Ryu.
Chadwick Minge studied under Shoto Tanemura but founded the "Yamato Dojo" ("Studio City Martial Arts") based in California.
Unverified Origins
There are several persons and organizations that teach martial arts which they identify as ninjutsu but who lack a clear lineage to Japanese teachers. While such arts may still be effective, they lack authenticated Japanese lineage.
Ashida Kim is an American martial artist that has made unverified claims of cross training into ninjutsu, as well as unsubstantiated claims of being the last Koga-ryu ninja.
Frank Dux, is a martial artist whose claims of origins are unverified.
Koga-ryu Ninjutsu is believed to have survived into the mid-20th century, apparently having been passed to Fujita Seiko by a relative. Seiko had students, but did not pass on this legacy. Koga-ryu arts are generally considered to be virtually identical to the Iga-ryu arts.
The techniques that these mountain folk used to hunt and fight eventually became the strategic base of a new form of martial art ... Ninjutsu. The ninja clans used their art to ensure their survival in a time of violent political turmoil. It also included methods of gathering information, non-detection, avoidance, and misdirection techniques. Ninjutsu can also involve training in disguise, escape, concealment, archery, medicine, and explosives.
Practitioners of ninjutsu have been seen as assassins for hire, and have been associated in the public imagination with other activities which are considered criminal by modern standards. Even though it was influenced by Chinese spying techniques and the strategic principles of Sun Tzu, ninjutsu is believed by its adherents to be of Japanese origin. One version is that the basis of ninjutsu was taught to a Japanese household who fled to the mountains after losing a battle. There they mixed with a varied lot of people including the descendants of refugees who had fled China. Later, the skills were developed over 300 years to create ninjutsu.
Although the popular view is that ninjutsu is the art of secrecy or stealth, actual practitioners consider it to mean the art of enduring - enduring all of life's hardships. The character nin carries both these meanings, and others.
It is true that ninjutsu has a long and myth-filled history, but today almost anyone is allowed to practice modern ninjutsu. As one makes progress in ninjutsu the system gets more sophisticated, and one might realize that the system contains more than fighting skills. To avoid misunderstandings, "ninjutsu" should just refer to a specific branch of Japanese martial arts, unless it is being used in a historical sense.
18 Ninjutsu Skills (Ninja Juhakkei)
The eighteen disciplines were first stated in the scrolls of Togakure-ryū, and they became definitive for all Ninjutsu schools, providing a complete training of the warrior in various fighting arts and complementary disciplines.
However, Ninja Juhakkei was often studied along with Bugei Juhappan (the 18 Samurai fighting art skills). Though some of them are the same, the techniques of each discipline were used with different approaches by both Samurai and Ninja.
The 18 disciplines are:
Seishin-teki kyōyō (spiritual refinement)
Taijutsu (unarmed combat)
Kenjutsu (sword fighting)
Bōjutsu (stick and staff fighting)
Shurikenjutsu (throwing blades)
Sōjutsu (spear fighting)
Naginatajutsu (naginata fighting)
Kusarigamajutsu (chain and sickle weapon)
Kayakujutsu (fire and explosives)
Hensōjutsu (disguise and animal morphing)
Shinobi-iri (stealth and entering methods)
Bajutsu (horsemanship)
Sui-ren (water training)
Bōryaku (military strategy)
Chōhō (espionage)(spying)
Intonjutsu (escaping and concealment)
Tenmon (meteorology and astral projection)
Chi-mon (geography)
Schools of ninjutsu
The Bujinkan Dōjō headed by Masaaki Hatsumi is one of three organizations generally accepted as teaching ninjutsu by the Bujinkan's members (under the name Budo Taijutsu). Hatsumi's Bujinkan Dōjō consists of nine separate schools of allegedly traditional Japanese martial arts, only three of which contain ninjutsu teachings. Hatsumi learned a variety of martial arts, including ninjutsu, from Toshitsugu Takamatsu.
There are two other organizations teaching ninjutsu. These are the Genbukan headed by Shoto Tanemura, who left the Bujinkan in 1984, and the Jinenkan headed by Fumio Manaka, who left later. Both had achieved Menkyo Kaiden before leaving due to differences of opinion with regards to the teaching style.
Other extant traditional martial arts such as the Tenshin Shoden Katori Shintō-ryū contain some aspects of ninjutsu in their curriculum, but are not ninjutsu schools per se.
The espionage techniques of ninjutsu are rarely focused on in recent times, since they serve little purpose to the bulk of modern populations, and tend to attract negative publicity and students with unrealistic expectations.
Another major aspect of authentic ninjitsu training that continues to this day is the wearing of a head dress similar to the islamic hijab. Although in modern times the rules have relaxed somewhat, a ninja can expect sadistic and often inhumane treatment if identified without appropriate ninja dress. The hijab allows the ninja to maintain security of identity (even among friends and relatives), effectively conceal their face from potential enemies and maintain the honour code of the ninja (see also Saving Face).
Other schools
Several other schools of ninjutsu exist, some of which can be traced back to Japanese origins.
Verified Japanese Origins
Israel was one of the first places where Bujinkan ninjutsu was practiced outside Japan, with Doron Navon pioneering it there in 1974. The AKBAN organization uses the Bujinkan curriculum the way it was used when Doron Navon, the first foreign Bujinkan shihan, studied under Hatsumi sensei.
Stephen K. Hayes studied under Masaaki Hatsumi but teaches an Americanized system, To-Shin Do, in his Quest Centers.
Richard Van Donk who was one of the first Foreigners to take the Godan test from Soke Hatsumi in the early 1980s encouraged Hatsumi to do videos of his teachings and helped him distribute them worldwide thereby growing the Ninjutsu art. Richard has been graded to 15th dan from Hatsumi.
The Late Dr. Glenn Morris studied under Masaaki Hatsumi but founded the Hoshin Roshi Ryu.
Chadwick Minge studied under Shoto Tanemura but founded the "Yamato Dojo" ("Studio City Martial Arts") based in California.
Unverified Origins
There are several persons and organizations that teach martial arts which they identify as ninjutsu but who lack a clear lineage to Japanese teachers. While such arts may still be effective, they lack authenticated Japanese lineage.
Ashida Kim is an American martial artist that has made unverified claims of cross training into ninjutsu, as well as unsubstantiated claims of being the last Koga-ryu ninja.
Frank Dux, is a martial artist whose claims of origins are unverified.
Koga-ryu Ninjutsu is believed to have survived into the mid-20th century, apparently having been passed to Fujita Seiko by a relative. Seiko had students, but did not pass on this legacy. Koga-ryu arts are generally considered to be virtually identical to the Iga-ryu arts.
Monday, January 8, 2007
Iaidō
Iaidō
I•ai•dō (居合道), approximately "the art of mental presence and immediate reaction", is a Japanese martial art associated with smooth, controlled movements of drawing the sword from its scabbard or saya, striking or cutting an opponent, removing blood from the blade, and then replacing the sword in the scabbard or saya. Modern day iaidō exponents typically use an iaito for practice. Beginners may use a iaito while the more advanced practicioner might use a shinken (sharpened sword).
Hayashizaki Jinsuke (Minamoto no) Shigenobu is generally credited with establishing the influence and popularity of Iaidō, early in the sixteenth century. However, around a century before his birth, the dynamic art of iaijutsu had been developed by Iizasa Ienao, the founder of the Tensin Shoden Katori Shinto Ryu.
Iaidō should not be confused with kendo (剣道) or kenjutsu (剣術):
• Kendo teaching does not include drawing and re-sheathing of a sword. The weapon used in kendo, a flexible bamboo shinai uses no scabbard. Kendo is practiced with a partner in full contact training or in kata practice.
• Kenjutsu is executed in the form of kata, but usually in pairs, and often does not include drawing or resheathing of the sword,
Delineation from battōjutsu (抜刀術), literally "technique of drawing the sword" is more difficult: battōjutsu is the historical (ca. 15th century) term encompassing both the practice of drawing the sword and cutting (tameshigiri). The term iaijutsu (居合術) became prevalent later (ca. 17th century), and the current term iaidō is due to the general trend of the 1960s to replace -jutsu with -dō in Japanese martial arts in order to emphasize a mental or even spiritual component. In contemporary usage, battōjutsu focuses on the techniques of cutting, with individual practice kata that starts with the sword in the sheath.
Iaidō forms, or kata, are performed individually against one or more imaginary opponents. Some traditional iaidō schools, however, include kata performed in pairs. Some styles and schools also do not practice tameshigiri, cutting techniques.
The primary emphasis in Iaidō, is on the psychological state of being present (居). The secondary emphasis is on drawing the sword and responding to the sudden attack as quickly as possible (合). Starting positions can be from combative postures or from everyday sitting or standing positions. The ability to react quickly from different starting positions was considered essential for a samurai (侍).
A very important part of iai, is nukitsuke or the life of iai. This is a very quick draw accomplished by drawing the sword out of the scabbard by(鞘 saya), moving the saya back in saya biki. The blade may be brought out of the scabbard and used in a quick nukitsuke slashing motion.
History of laido syyles
The Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto-ryu (天真正伝香取神道流) included iaijutsu (居合術) in its curriculum in 15th century. The first schools dedicated exclusively to sword drawing appeared some time during the late 16th or early 17th century. Most modern schools consider a samurai called Hayashizaki Jinsuke Minamoto no Shigenobu (1546-1621) as the originator of iaidō. Little is known of his life - leading some scholars to doubt his historical existence as a real person. The two largest schools of iaidō that are practised today, Muso Shinden-ryu (夢想神伝流) and Muso Jikiden Eishin-ryu (無雙直傳英信流), and both claim a lineage from Hayashizaki Jinsuke Shigenobu (林崎甚助重信). But to say most, it is a form of Japanese sword art.
Before Nakayama Hakudo (1873?-1958) coined the word iaidō, early in the 20th century, various other names such as battō, battōjutsu, or saya no uchi were used. Iaidō is the usual term to refer to the modern self improvement oriented form taught by the All Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF), while Iaijutsu is used for some amongst the older koryu, combative, techniques.
Seitei Iaidō
Seitei iaidō is the iaidō style of the All Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF, Zen Nippon Kendo Renmei). The AJKF formed in 1956. In 1969, the AJKF introduced the Seitei Gata curriculum of seven kata for iaidō (全日本剣道連盟居合). These were drawn from, or based on, several of the major traditional sword schools, including Muso Jikiden Eishin-ryu, Muso Shinden-ryu and Hoki Ryu. Three more kata were added In 1981, and two more in 2000; increasing the seitei iaidō (seitei gata) curriculum to the current standardised twelve kata for tuition.
These twelve setei gata are now standardised for the tuition, promotion and propagation of iaidō and as a result, seitei iaidō has since become the most widely recognised form of iaidō in Japan and the rest of the world.
Classical Iaidō styles
The two main classical styles (koryu) of iaidō practiced worldwide are Muso Jikiden Eishin-ryu and Muso Shinden-ryu. They resemble each other quite strongly because they branched off from one style sometime in the 18th century, under Oguro Motouemon Kiyakatsu sensei. After Oguro, there came into being two branches that were formed on philosophical differences between two students of Oguro: The Shimomura-ha and Tanimura-ha (branches), the former being headed by Maysuyori Teisuke Hisanari and the latter by Matsuyoshi Teisuke (Shinsuke) Hisanari, who became the 12th grandmaster.
These two branches would co-exist for many years until Muso Jikiden Eishin Ryu officially came into being in the early 20th century through the initiative of Oe Masamichi Shikei, the 17th headmaster of the Jikiden Eishin Ryu. Oe would bring together the Tanimura-ha, Hasegawa Eishin Ryu and the Omori Ryu to form what is today's Muso Jikiden Eishin Ryu.
The Shimomura-ha held its own headmasters and philosophy for many years but would eventually fade away. The last Shimomura-ha (claimed) headmaster, Nakayama Hakudo who is considered the 16th, created a new iai-art called Muso Shinden Battojutsu that was heavily influenced by his Shimomura-ha training, but also took elements from other iai-arts. Nakayama Hakudo is not known to have taught the "pure" Shimomura-ha teachings in its complete form to any of his students and thus it can be argued that Shimomura-ha no longer exists as a separate entity, even though elements of it remain in what would later become the modern Muso Shinden-ryu.
One of the differences between the two schools can be seen in the noto (sheathing the katana back in the saya). In Muso Shinden, noto is done on the horizontal plane, the blade parallel to the floor. In Jikiden, the blade is perpendicular to the floor in a more or less vertical plane.
A third less popular style of iaido is Mugai Ryu Iaido. Mugai ryu is characterized by rapid strong cuts and the almost complete absence of chiburi. It has deep links with zen budhism. Some of the advanced wazas of Mugai ryu also focus on waza that don't kill, but neutralize the opponent. This style has several regional sokes who hold the lineage. Soke Hosho Shiokawa is the 15th soke of Mugai ryu.
There are several branches of Muso Jikiden Eishin-ryū (MJER) that are practised today. Different Iaidō organisations generally recognise different people as their sōke. One person who is considered to be a sōke is Miura Takeyuki Hidefusa, who holds a 9th Dan in MJER. The All Japan Iaidō Federation (Dai Nippon Iaidō Renmei) recognises Ajisai Hirai (9th Dan Hanshi) as the 22nd sōke of MJER.
There are several lines of transmission extant for Muso Shinden-ryu also. One of them claims Mitsuzuka Takeshi as the sōke, second one (those who are affiliated with Nippon Iaidō Kyokai) regard Takada Gakudō as their head teacher.
In the All Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF) or Zen Nippon Kendo Renmei, one of the largest federations both in Japan and outside Japan, there are two lines representing the Muso school. The current sōke for Muso Jikiden Eishin-ryū is Fukui Torao (21st master), and the last sōke for Muso Shinden-ryū was Nakayama Hakudo with no official successor.
Modern Iaijutsu
A newer style of iaijutsu is Toyama-ryu battōjutsu. This is a style originating in the late 19th century, and taught primarily to officers in the Second World War. It is different from the older styles primarily in that all techniques are performed from a standing position. Toyama Ryu was in turn the basis of Nakamura Ryu, created by Nakamura Taizaburo; incorporating Noto and Kamae from older Koryu, notably Omori Ryu. It has been a long time since any differing schools have competed using Shinken (sharp blades); hence it cannot be said that the traditional schools are superior to the modern schools, or vice versa, in the ultimate test.
Bokken
Bokken
A bokken (木剣, bok(u), "wood", and ken, "sword"), is a wooden Japanese sword used for training, usually the size and shape of a katana, but sometimes shaped like other swords. Other common shapes are wakizashi and tantō. They are also known as bokutō (木刀, "wooden sword"), which is also the usual term in Japan.
These should not be confused with shinai, the bamboo sword used in kendo.
Usage
A bokken is used as a relatively safe and inexpensive substitute for a real blade in training for several martial arts. They are used in the early stages of training in iaido, when a practitioner has not yet reached the level where use of an iaito would be safe. An exception occurs when a certain kata involving two people is performed. Then the veteran teacher, or iaidoka, will use a bokken for safety. There are also specially designed bokken made for sword drawing. These are, for the most part, supplied with a plastic or wooden saya and are generally slimmer than a normal bokken and not suited for regular sword techniques.
Kenjutsu makes heavy use of the regular bokken in various drills, as does the Bujinkan and other Ninjutsu systems.
Bokken are used for the practice of kendo; to learn to make proper strokes and get accustomed to the curvature of the blade, as well as to practice the kata (forms). More than a few kata take advantage of the curvature of the blade and the presence of the tsuba, or hand guard, to block the opponent's sword. This is not possible with the straight "blade" of the shinai.
Many Aikido techniques are derived from use of the Japanese sword, although Aikido is primarily an empty-handed art. The focus of the bokken in some aikido dojo is not that of a weapon, but that of a tool to enhance focus. These wooden swords often have a smooth transition between handle and 'blade' and are not used with a tsuba. Other bokken are made to accept a tsuba and have a clearly defined transition between the handle and the 'blade'. Aikidoka practice a form of sword work known as Aiki-Ken that is slightly different from other Japanese arts. The bokken is used in Aiki-Ken to learn proper body placement and distance (maai) from the attacker, in an attempt to be in the safest and most powerful position. Philosophically, Aiki-Ken stresses the importance of moving into the safest killing position, allowing the Aikidoka the option not to perform the killing blow.
Construction
The quality of the bokken depends on several factors. The type of wood used, along with the quality of the wood itself, and the skill of the craftsman, are all critical factors in the manufacture of a good quality bokken. Almost all mass produced inexpensive bokken are made from porous, loose-grained southeast Asian wood. These bokken are easily broken when used in even light to medium contact drills, and are best left to work in kata only. Furthermore, the wood is often so porous, that if the varnish is stripped off the inexpensive bokken, one can see the use of wood fillers to fill the holes.
While most species of North American red oak are unsuitable for construction of bokken, there are some Asian species of red oak that have a significantly tighter grain and will last longer.
Superior woods, such as Japanese white oak, also known as Kashi, has been a proven staple, having a tighter grain than red oak wood. Another choice, hickory wood, seems to have a very good blend of hardness and impact resistance, while still having a relatively low cost.
The use of exotic hardwoods is not unusual when looking at some of the more expensive bokken. Some are made from Brazilian cherrywood (Jatoba), others from purpleheart, and some very expensive ones made from Lignum Vitae. Tropical woods are often quite heavy, a feature often sought in bokken despite the brittleness of these heavy and hard materials. Many of the exotics are suitable for suburi (solo practice), but not for paired practice where there is hard contact with other bokken.
Suburito are bokken designed for suburi. Suburi, literally "bare cutting," are solo cutting exercises. Suburito are thicker and heavier than normal bokken, and users of suburito have to develop both strength and technique. Their weight does, however, tend to make them poorly balanced; consequently, they are usually not used for paired practice or kata.
History
Historically, bokken are as old as Japanese blades, and were used for the training of warriors. Miyamoto Musashi, a legendary kenjutsu master, was infamous for fighting fully armed foes with only one or two bokken. It has been verified that he defeated at least one master swordsman in this manner; Sasaki Kojiro. Kojiro was armed with his "Drying pole", a long nodachi, but Musashi slew him with a bokken he carved from an oar while traveling on a boat to the predetermined island for the duel.
Shinai
A shinai (Japanese: 竹刀) is a practice sword used primarily in Kendo. Shinai are also used in other martial arts, however these are styled differently than kendo shinai, and are represented with different characters.
Construction
The Shinai is made of four bamboo slats (take) held together by two pieces of leather, tsuka-gawa (handle) and saki-gawa (tip), and a string (tsuru). Placed under the saki-gawa is a plastic plug saki-gomu. To prevent the four take from getting misplaced there is a small square of metal, chigiri, placed between them inside the tsuka-gawa. A leather thong (nakayui) is wrapped around the take and tied to the tsuru about one-third of the way down the shinai from the tip (kensen); this holds take together in the event of a break and marks the proper striking portion of the blade (datosubu). Shinai are available in many styles and balances, and some may be treated (smoked or resin soaked) or made from carbon fiber alternative materials.
Care of Shinai
A Shinai must be properly taken care of or it can pose a danger to both the user, and the people around it. Shinai should be inspected for splinters and breaks before and after use, and taken care of in the manner considered most appropriate by one's style, dojo, or sensei.
Many people believe that oiling and sanding a shinai prior to use, and periodically during use can greatly extend its life. However, even in Japan, people disagree on what is considered proper shinai care and there is much lore and myth surrounding various methods.
To properly inspect a shinai, one first examines the area around the datosubu, looking on all sides of the shinai for splinters. Bamboo splinters infect easily, so care should be taken by either using a glove or rag while sanding the splinters down. The saki-gawa should be intact and the tsuru should be tight so that the saki-gawa cannot slip off the end of the shinai while in use. In addition, the nakayui should be tight enough as to not rotate easily.
Regulations
In competition there are regulated weights and lengths of the Shinai.
Adult females: maximum length 120 cm, weight minimum 440 grams
Adult males: maximum length 120 cm, weight minimum 510 grams.
Trivia
Like many weapons, it can also be used as an implement for corporal punishment, notably in spanking, more common in Japan than the paddle in the US.
The Shinai has become a popular tool/weapon in Professional wrestling, due to its intimidating look and the loud cracking sound it makes once it strikes someone. It is frequently called Singapore Cane or Kendo Stick by the less knowledgeable. It is especially identified with the professional wrestler The Sandman. It was also identified with wrestlers Steve Blackman, Tommy Dreamer, and Justin Credible, as well as wrestling executive Shane McMahon during his occasional appearances as a wrestler.
In manga, Rurouni Kenshin by Nobuhiro Watsuki, Myojin Yahiko uses a shinai.
KENDO
Kendo
Kendo (剣道, Kendō?) or "way of the sword", is the martial art of Japanese fencing.
Kendo developed from traditional techniques of Japanese swordsmanship known as kenjutsu.
The Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, was established in 1895 to solidify, promote, and standardise all martial disciplines and systems in Japan. The DNBK, changed the name of Gekiken (Kyūjitai: 擊劍; Shinjitai: 撃剣, "hitting sword") to kendo in 1920.
In 1975 the All Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF), developed an explanation of the concept and purpose of studying kendo.
The Concept of Kendo is to discipline the human character through the application of the principles of the katana.
The Purpose of practicing Kendo is:
To mold the mind and body,
To cultivate a vigorous spirit,
And through correct and rigid training,
To strive for improvement in the art of Kendo,
To hold in esteem human courtesy and honor,
To associate with others with sincerity,
And to forever pursue the cultivation of oneself.
This will make one be able:
To love his/her country and society,
To contribute to the development of culture
And to promote peace and prosperity among all peoples.
Kendo is a physically and mentally challenging activity that combines strong martial arts values with sporting-like physical elements. Kendo embodies the essence of Japanese fighting arts.
Practitioners of kendo are called kendoka (one who practices kendo) or kenshi (swordsman). The latter may also be applied to practitioners of other traditional Japanese sword arts. Around 8 million people world-wide practice kendo with approximately 7 million of them in Japan.
Equipment and costume
Kendo is practiced using "swords" made of split bamboo called shinai and extensive protective armour (bogu) is worn to protect specified target areas on the head and body. Kendoka also use bokken|bokuto (wooden swords) to practice set forms known as kata. The costume, worn under the bogu comprises a jacket, or kendogi/keikogi and a hakama, which is a garment with wide legs.
Kendo is ideally practiced in a purpose-built dojo, though standard sports halls and other venues are often used instead. An appropriate venue has a clean and well-sprung wooden floor, allowing safe use of Kendo's distinctive stamping footwork for the bare-footed practitioners.
History
Since the earliest samurai government in Japan, during the Kamakura period (1185-1233), sword fencing, together with horse riding and archery, were the main martial pursuits of the military clans. In this period kendo developed under the strong influence of Zen Buddhism. The samurai could equate the disregard for his own life in the heat of battle, which was considered necessary for victory in individual combat, to the Buddhist concept of the illusory nature of the distinction between life and death.
Kendō at an agricultural school in Japan around 1920Those swordsmen established schools of kendo training which continued for centuries, and which form the basis of kendo practice today. The names of the schools reflect the essence of the originator’s enlightenment. Thus the Itto-Ryu (Single sword school) indicates the founder’s illumination that all possible cuts with the sword emanate from and are contained in one original essential cut. The Muto (swordless school) expresses the comprehension of the originator Yamaoka Tesshu, that "There is no sword outside the mind". The 'Munen Muso Ryu’ (No Intent, no preconception) similarly expresses the understanding that the essence of Kendo transcends the reflective thought process.
The formal kendo exercises developed several centuries ago, are still studied today using wooden swords in set forms, or kata. Kendo teaching emphasise a co-ordinated whole body movement.
The introduction of bamboo practice swords (shinai) and armour (bogu) to kendo training is attributed to Naganuma Sirozaemon Kunisato (長沼四郎左衛門国郷 1688-1767). This is believed to be the foundation of modern kendo.
Kendo began to make its modern appearance during the late 18th century. Use of the shinai and armour (bogu) made possible the full force delivery of strikes and thrusts without inflicting injury on the opponent. These advances, along with practice formats, set the foundations of modern kendo.
Concepts such as 'mushin', or 'empty mind' as professed by exponents of Zen, are an essential attainment for high level kendo. Fudoshin, or 'unmoving mind', is a conceptual attribute of the deity Fudo Myo-O, one of the five 'Kings of Light' of Shingon Buddhism. Fudoshin, implies that the kendoka cannot be led astray by delusions of anger, doubt, fear, or surprise arising from the opponent’s actions. Thus today it is possible to embark on a similar quest for spiritual enlightenment as followed by the samurai of old.
Modern kendo
In modern kendo, there are strikes (or cuts) and thrusts. Strikes are allowed against only seven specified target areas, or datotsu-bui on the head or body, all of which are protected by bogu. The targets are men (top of the head), sayu-men or yoko-men (upper left and right side of the head), the right kote, or wrist at any time, the left kote when it is in a raised position (such as jodan) and the left or right do or torso. Thrusts are only allowed to the throat (tsuki). However, since an incorrectly performed thrust could injure the neck, thrusting techniques in free practice and competition are often restricted to senior dan graded kendoka.
Competition
In shiai, or competition, a point is only awarded when the attack is made firmly and properly to a target point with ki-ken-tai-ichi, or spirit, sword and body as one. This means that for an attack to be successful, the shinai must strike the specified target, the contact by the shinai must happen simultaneously with the attacker's front foot contacting with floor and the kendoka must vocalise an expression of kiai that displays good spirit. Additionally, the top third of the shinai must make contact with the target and direction of movement by the shinai must also be correct. Finally, zanshin, or continuation of awareness, must be present and shown before, during and after the strike, then the player must be ready to attack again.
In a tournament, there are usually three referees, or shinpan. Each holds a red flag and a white flag in opposite hands. To signal a point, the shinpan raise the flag corresponding to the colour of the ribbon worn by the scoring competitor. Generally, at least two shinpan must agree, for a point to be awarded. The match continues until a pronouncement of the point that has been scored.
The first competitor to score two points wins the match. If the time limit is reached and only one competitor has a point, that competitor wins.
In the case of a tie, there are several options:
The match may be declared a draw.
The match may be extended (encho), and the first competitor to score a point wins.
The winner may be chosen by a decision made by the shinpan, or hantei, in which the three referees vote for their choice. This is done simultaneously, by show of flags.
Grades
Technical achievement in kendo is measured by advancement in grade, rank or level. The "kyu" and "dan" grading system is used to assess the level of one's skill in kendo. The dan levels are from 1-dan (sho-dan) to 10-dan (ju-dan). There are usually 6 grades below 1-dan known as kyu. The kyu numbering is in reverse order with 1-kyu (ikkyu) being the grade immediately below 1-dan.
In the AJKF the grades of 9-dan (kyu-dan) and 10-dan (ju-dan) are no longer awarded. However, FIK grading rules allow national kendo organisations to establish a special committee to consider the award of those grades.
There are no visible differences between kendo grades; beginners may dress the same as higher-ranking yudansha.
All candidates for examination face a panel of examiners. A larger, more qualified panel is usually assembled to assess the higher dan grades.
Kendo examinations typically consist of a demonstration of the applicants skill and for some dan grades, also a written exam. The 8-dan kendo exam is extremely difficult, with a reported pass rate of less than 1 percent.
Kata
There are 10 nihon kendo kata (Japanese kendo forms). These are performed with wooden swords (bokken/bokuto), the kata include fundamental techniques of attacking and counter-attacking, and have useful practical application in general kendo. Occasionally, real swords or swords with a blunt edge, called kata-yo or habiki, may be used for a display of kata.
Kata 1–7 are performed with both partners using a bokken (long sword) of around 102 cm. Kata 8–10 are performed with one partner using a bokken and the other using a kodachi (short sword) of around 55cm.
During kata practice, the participants take the roles of either uchidachi (teacher) or shidachi (student). The uchidachi makes the first move or attack in each kata. As this is a teaching role, the uchidachi is always the 'losing' side, thus allowing the shidachi or student to learn and gain confidence.
Nihon kendo kata were drawn from representative kenjutsu schools and tend to be quite deep and advanced. In some areas the regular training curriculum does not include nihon kendo kata.
In 2003, the introduction of Bokuto Ni Yoru Kendo Kihon-waza Keiko-ho, a set of basic exercises using a (bokken/bokuto), attempted to bridge this gap. Bokuto Ni Yoru Kendo Kihon-waza Keiko-ho is intended primarily for kendoka up to 2-dan, but is useful for all kendo students.
Kendo (剣道, Kendō?) or "way of the sword", is the martial art of Japanese fencing.
Kendo developed from traditional techniques of Japanese swordsmanship known as kenjutsu.
The Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, was established in 1895 to solidify, promote, and standardise all martial disciplines and systems in Japan. The DNBK, changed the name of Gekiken (Kyūjitai: 擊劍; Shinjitai: 撃剣, "hitting sword") to kendo in 1920.
In 1975 the All Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF), developed an explanation of the concept and purpose of studying kendo.
The Concept of Kendo is to discipline the human character through the application of the principles of the katana.
The Purpose of practicing Kendo is:
To mold the mind and body,
To cultivate a vigorous spirit,
And through correct and rigid training,
To strive for improvement in the art of Kendo,
To hold in esteem human courtesy and honor,
To associate with others with sincerity,
And to forever pursue the cultivation of oneself.
This will make one be able:
To love his/her country and society,
To contribute to the development of culture
And to promote peace and prosperity among all peoples.
Kendo is a physically and mentally challenging activity that combines strong martial arts values with sporting-like physical elements. Kendo embodies the essence of Japanese fighting arts.
Practitioners of kendo are called kendoka (one who practices kendo) or kenshi (swordsman). The latter may also be applied to practitioners of other traditional Japanese sword arts. Around 8 million people world-wide practice kendo with approximately 7 million of them in Japan.
Equipment and costume
Kendo is practiced using "swords" made of split bamboo called shinai and extensive protective armour (bogu) is worn to protect specified target areas on the head and body. Kendoka also use bokken|bokuto (wooden swords) to practice set forms known as kata. The costume, worn under the bogu comprises a jacket, or kendogi/keikogi and a hakama, which is a garment with wide legs.
Kendo is ideally practiced in a purpose-built dojo, though standard sports halls and other venues are often used instead. An appropriate venue has a clean and well-sprung wooden floor, allowing safe use of Kendo's distinctive stamping footwork for the bare-footed practitioners.
History
Since the earliest samurai government in Japan, during the Kamakura period (1185-1233), sword fencing, together with horse riding and archery, were the main martial pursuits of the military clans. In this period kendo developed under the strong influence of Zen Buddhism. The samurai could equate the disregard for his own life in the heat of battle, which was considered necessary for victory in individual combat, to the Buddhist concept of the illusory nature of the distinction between life and death.
Kendō at an agricultural school in Japan around 1920Those swordsmen established schools of kendo training which continued for centuries, and which form the basis of kendo practice today. The names of the schools reflect the essence of the originator’s enlightenment. Thus the Itto-Ryu (Single sword school) indicates the founder’s illumination that all possible cuts with the sword emanate from and are contained in one original essential cut. The Muto (swordless school) expresses the comprehension of the originator Yamaoka Tesshu, that "There is no sword outside the mind". The 'Munen Muso Ryu’ (No Intent, no preconception) similarly expresses the understanding that the essence of Kendo transcends the reflective thought process.
The formal kendo exercises developed several centuries ago, are still studied today using wooden swords in set forms, or kata. Kendo teaching emphasise a co-ordinated whole body movement.
The introduction of bamboo practice swords (shinai) and armour (bogu) to kendo training is attributed to Naganuma Sirozaemon Kunisato (長沼四郎左衛門国郷 1688-1767). This is believed to be the foundation of modern kendo.
Kendo began to make its modern appearance during the late 18th century. Use of the shinai and armour (bogu) made possible the full force delivery of strikes and thrusts without inflicting injury on the opponent. These advances, along with practice formats, set the foundations of modern kendo.
Concepts such as 'mushin', or 'empty mind' as professed by exponents of Zen, are an essential attainment for high level kendo. Fudoshin, or 'unmoving mind', is a conceptual attribute of the deity Fudo Myo-O, one of the five 'Kings of Light' of Shingon Buddhism. Fudoshin, implies that the kendoka cannot be led astray by delusions of anger, doubt, fear, or surprise arising from the opponent’s actions. Thus today it is possible to embark on a similar quest for spiritual enlightenment as followed by the samurai of old.
Modern kendo
In modern kendo, there are strikes (or cuts) and thrusts. Strikes are allowed against only seven specified target areas, or datotsu-bui on the head or body, all of which are protected by bogu. The targets are men (top of the head), sayu-men or yoko-men (upper left and right side of the head), the right kote, or wrist at any time, the left kote when it is in a raised position (such as jodan) and the left or right do or torso. Thrusts are only allowed to the throat (tsuki). However, since an incorrectly performed thrust could injure the neck, thrusting techniques in free practice and competition are often restricted to senior dan graded kendoka.
Competition
In shiai, or competition, a point is only awarded when the attack is made firmly and properly to a target point with ki-ken-tai-ichi, or spirit, sword and body as one. This means that for an attack to be successful, the shinai must strike the specified target, the contact by the shinai must happen simultaneously with the attacker's front foot contacting with floor and the kendoka must vocalise an expression of kiai that displays good spirit. Additionally, the top third of the shinai must make contact with the target and direction of movement by the shinai must also be correct. Finally, zanshin, or continuation of awareness, must be present and shown before, during and after the strike, then the player must be ready to attack again.
In a tournament, there are usually three referees, or shinpan. Each holds a red flag and a white flag in opposite hands. To signal a point, the shinpan raise the flag corresponding to the colour of the ribbon worn by the scoring competitor. Generally, at least two shinpan must agree, for a point to be awarded. The match continues until a pronouncement of the point that has been scored.
The first competitor to score two points wins the match. If the time limit is reached and only one competitor has a point, that competitor wins.
In the case of a tie, there are several options:
The match may be declared a draw.
The match may be extended (encho), and the first competitor to score a point wins.
The winner may be chosen by a decision made by the shinpan, or hantei, in which the three referees vote for their choice. This is done simultaneously, by show of flags.
Grades
Technical achievement in kendo is measured by advancement in grade, rank or level. The "kyu" and "dan" grading system is used to assess the level of one's skill in kendo. The dan levels are from 1-dan (sho-dan) to 10-dan (ju-dan). There are usually 6 grades below 1-dan known as kyu. The kyu numbering is in reverse order with 1-kyu (ikkyu) being the grade immediately below 1-dan.
In the AJKF the grades of 9-dan (kyu-dan) and 10-dan (ju-dan) are no longer awarded. However, FIK grading rules allow national kendo organisations to establish a special committee to consider the award of those grades.
There are no visible differences between kendo grades; beginners may dress the same as higher-ranking yudansha.
All candidates for examination face a panel of examiners. A larger, more qualified panel is usually assembled to assess the higher dan grades.
Kendo examinations typically consist of a demonstration of the applicants skill and for some dan grades, also a written exam. The 8-dan kendo exam is extremely difficult, with a reported pass rate of less than 1 percent.
Kata
There are 10 nihon kendo kata (Japanese kendo forms). These are performed with wooden swords (bokken/bokuto), the kata include fundamental techniques of attacking and counter-attacking, and have useful practical application in general kendo. Occasionally, real swords or swords with a blunt edge, called kata-yo or habiki, may be used for a display of kata.
Kata 1–7 are performed with both partners using a bokken (long sword) of around 102 cm. Kata 8–10 are performed with one partner using a bokken and the other using a kodachi (short sword) of around 55cm.
During kata practice, the participants take the roles of either uchidachi (teacher) or shidachi (student). The uchidachi makes the first move or attack in each kata. As this is a teaching role, the uchidachi is always the 'losing' side, thus allowing the shidachi or student to learn and gain confidence.
Nihon kendo kata were drawn from representative kenjutsu schools and tend to be quite deep and advanced. In some areas the regular training curriculum does not include nihon kendo kata.
In 2003, the introduction of Bokuto Ni Yoru Kendo Kihon-waza Keiko-ho, a set of basic exercises using a (bokken/bokuto), attempted to bridge this gap. Bokuto Ni Yoru Kendo Kihon-waza Keiko-ho is intended primarily for kendoka up to 2-dan, but is useful for all kendo students.
Sunday, January 7, 2007
Japanese (日本語, Nihongo (help·info)) is a language spoken by over 130 million people, mainly in Japan, but also by Japanese emigrant communities around the world. It is an agglutinative language and is distinguished by a complex system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary to indicate the relative status of speaker, listener and the person mentioned in conversation. The sound inventory of Japanese is relatively small, and has a lexically distinct pitch-accent system. Early Japanese is known largely on the basis of its state in the 8th century, when the three major works of Old Japanese were compiled, but smaller amounts of material, primarily inscriptional, is of earlier date. The earliest attestation of Japanese is in a Chinese document from 252 C.E.
The Japanese language is written with a combination of three different types of glyphs: Chinese characters, kanji, and two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. The Latin alphabet, rōmaji, is also often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when inputting Japanese into a computer. Western style Arabic numerals are generally used for numbers, but traditional Sino-Japanese numeral are also commonplace.
Japanese vocabulary has been heavily influenced by loans from other languages. A vast number of words were borrowed from Chinese, or created from Chinese models, over a period of at least 1,500 years. Since the late 19th century, Japanese has borrowed a considerable number of words from Indo-European languages, primarily English. Because of the special trade relationship between Japan and Holland in the 17th century, Dutch has also been influential, with words like bīru (from bier; "beer") and kōhī (from koffie; "coffee") being of Dutch origin.
The Japanese language is written with a combination of three different types of glyphs: Chinese characters, kanji, and two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. The Latin alphabet, rōmaji, is also often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when inputting Japanese into a computer. Western style Arabic numerals are generally used for numbers, but traditional Sino-Japanese numeral are also commonplace.
Japanese vocabulary has been heavily influenced by loans from other languages. A vast number of words were borrowed from Chinese, or created from Chinese models, over a period of at least 1,500 years. Since the late 19th century, Japanese has borrowed a considerable number of words from Indo-European languages, primarily English. Because of the special trade relationship between Japan and Holland in the 17th century, Dutch has also been influential, with words like bīru (from bier; "beer") and kōhī (from koffie; "coffee") being of Dutch origin.
classification
Historical linguists who specialize in Japanese agree that it is one of the two members of the Japonic language family, the other member being Ryūkyūan. (An older view, still held by many non-specialists, is that Japanese is a language isolate, of which the Ryūkyūan languages are dialects.)
The genetic affiliation of the Japonic family is uncertain. Numerous theories have been proposed, relating it to a wide variety of other languages and families, including extinct languages spoken by historic cultures of the Korean peninsula; the Korean language; the Altaic languages; and the Austronesian languages, among many others. It is also often suggested that it may be a creole language combining more than one of these. The various theories are detailed in the main article. At this point, no one theory is generally accepted as correct, and the issue is likely to remain controversial.
The genetic affiliation of the Japonic family is uncertain. Numerous theories have been proposed, relating it to a wide variety of other languages and families, including extinct languages spoken by historic cultures of the Korean peninsula; the Korean language; the Altaic languages; and the Austronesian languages, among many others. It is also often suggested that it may be a creole language combining more than one of these. The various theories are detailed in the main article. At this point, no one theory is generally accepted as correct, and the issue is likely to remain controversial.
Geographic distribution
Although Japanese is spoken almost exclusively in Japan, it has been and is still sometimes spoken elsewhere. When Japan occupied Korea, Taiwan, parts of the Chinese mainland, and various Pacific islands during and before World War II, locals in those countries were forced to learn Japanese in empire-building programs. As a result, there are still many people in these countries who speak Japanese instead of, or in addition to, the local languages. Japanese emigrant communities (the largest of which are to be found in Brazil) frequently employ Japanese as their primary language. Japanese emigrants can also be found in Peru, Australia (especially Sydney, Brisbane, and Melbourne), and the United States (notably California and Hawaii). There is also a small emigrant community in Davao, Philippines. Their descendants (known as nikkei 日系, literally Japanese descendants), however, rarely speak Japanese fluently. There are estimated to be several million non-Japanese studying the language as well; many schools, both primary and secondary, offer courses.
Although Japanese is spoken almost exclusively in Japan, it has been and is still sometimes spoken elsewhere. When Japan occupied Korea, Taiwan, parts of the Chinese mainland, and various Pacific islands during and before World War II, locals in those countries were forced to learn Japanese in empire-building programs. As a result, there are still many people in these countries who speak Japanese instead of, or in addition to, the local languages. Japanese emigrant communities (the largest of which are to be found in Brazil) frequently employ Japanese as their primary language. Japanese emigrants can also be found in Peru, Australia (especially Sydney, Brisbane, and Melbourne), and the United States (notably California and Hawaii). There is also a small emigrant community in Davao, Philippines. Their descendants (known as nikkei 日系, literally Japanese descendants), however, rarely speak Japanese fluently. There are estimated to be several million non-Japanese studying the language as well; many schools, both primary and secondary, offer courses.
Official status
Japanese is the de facto official language of Japan, which is the only country to have Japanese as an official working language. There are two forms of the language considered standard: hyōjungo (標準語, hyōjungo?) or standard Japanese, and kyōtsūgo (共通語, kyōtsūgo?) or the common language. As government policy has modernized Japanese, many of the distinctions between the two have blurred. Hyōjungo is taught in schools and used on television and in official communications, and is the version of Japanese discussed in this article.
Standard Japanese can also be divided into bungo (文語, bungo?) or "literary language," and kōgo (口語, kōgo?) or "oral language", which have different rules of grammar and some variance in vocabulary. Bungo was the main method of writing Japanese until the late 1940s, and still has relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived World War II are still written in bungo, although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). Kōgo is the predominant method of speaking and writing Japanese today, although bungo grammar and vocabulary are occasionally used in modern Japanese for effect.
Japanese is the de facto official language of Japan, which is the only country to have Japanese as an official working language. There are two forms of the language considered standard: hyōjungo (標準語, hyōjungo?) or standard Japanese, and kyōtsūgo (共通語, kyōtsūgo?) or the common language. As government policy has modernized Japanese, many of the distinctions between the two have blurred. Hyōjungo is taught in schools and used on television and in official communications, and is the version of Japanese discussed in this article.
Standard Japanese can also be divided into bungo (文語, bungo?) or "literary language," and kōgo (口語, kōgo?) or "oral language", which have different rules of grammar and some variance in vocabulary. Bungo was the main method of writing Japanese until the late 1940s, and still has relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived World War II are still written in bungo, although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). Kōgo is the predominant method of speaking and writing Japanese today, although bungo grammar and vocabulary are occasionally used in modern Japanese for effect.
Dialects
Dozens of dialects are spoken in Japan. The profusion is due to many factors, including the length of time the archipelago has been inhabited, its mountainous island terrain, and Japan's long history of both external and internal isolation. Dialects typically differ in terms of pitch accent, inflectional morphology, vocabulary, and particle usage. Some even differ in vowel and consonant inventories, although this is uncommon.
The main distinction in Japanese dialects is between Tokyo-type (東京式, Tōkyō-shiki?) and Western-type (京阪式, Keihan-shiki?), though Kyūshū-type dialects form a smaller third group. Within each type are several subdivisions. The Western-type dialects are actually in the central region, with borders roughly formed by Toyama, Kyōto, Hyōgo, and Mie Prefectures; most Shikoku dialects are also Western-type. Dialects further west are actually of the Tokyo type. The final category of dialects are those that are descended from the Eastern dialect of Old Japanese; these dialects are spoken in Hachijojima, Tosa, and very few other locations.
Dialects from peripheral regions, such as Tōhoku or Tsushima, may be unintelligible to speakers from other parts of the country. The several dialects used in Kagoshima in southern Kyūshū are famous for being unintelligible not only to speakers of standard Japanese but to speakers of nearby dialects elsewhere in Kyūshū as well, probably due in part to the Kagoshima dialects' peculiarities of pronunciation, which include the existence of closed syllables (i.e., syllables that end in a consonant, such as /kob/ or /koʔ/ for Standard Japanese /kumo/ "spider"). The vocabulary of Kagoshima dialect is 84% cognate with standard Tokyo dialect. Kansai-ben, a group of dialects from west-central Japan, is spoken by many Japanese; the Osaka dialect in particular is associated with comedy.
The Ryūkyūan languages, while closely related to Japanese, are distinct enough to be considered a separate branch of the Japonic family, and are not dialects of Japanese. They are spoken in the Ryūkyū Islands and in some islands that are politically part of Kagoshima Prefecture. Not only is each language unintelligible to Japanese speakers, but most are unintelligible to those who speak other Ryūkyūan languages.
Recently, Standard Japanese has become prevalent nationwide (including portions of the Ryūkyūan islands like Okinawa) due not only to television and radio, but also to increased mobility within Japan due to its system of roads, railways, and airports. Young people usually speak their local dialect and the standard language, though in most cases, the local dialect is influenced by the standard, and regional versions of "standard" Japanese have local-dialect influence.
Dozens of dialects are spoken in Japan. The profusion is due to many factors, including the length of time the archipelago has been inhabited, its mountainous island terrain, and Japan's long history of both external and internal isolation. Dialects typically differ in terms of pitch accent, inflectional morphology, vocabulary, and particle usage. Some even differ in vowel and consonant inventories, although this is uncommon.
The main distinction in Japanese dialects is between Tokyo-type (東京式, Tōkyō-shiki?) and Western-type (京阪式, Keihan-shiki?), though Kyūshū-type dialects form a smaller third group. Within each type are several subdivisions. The Western-type dialects are actually in the central region, with borders roughly formed by Toyama, Kyōto, Hyōgo, and Mie Prefectures; most Shikoku dialects are also Western-type. Dialects further west are actually of the Tokyo type. The final category of dialects are those that are descended from the Eastern dialect of Old Japanese; these dialects are spoken in Hachijojima, Tosa, and very few other locations.
Dialects from peripheral regions, such as Tōhoku or Tsushima, may be unintelligible to speakers from other parts of the country. The several dialects used in Kagoshima in southern Kyūshū are famous for being unintelligible not only to speakers of standard Japanese but to speakers of nearby dialects elsewhere in Kyūshū as well, probably due in part to the Kagoshima dialects' peculiarities of pronunciation, which include the existence of closed syllables (i.e., syllables that end in a consonant, such as /kob/ or /koʔ/ for Standard Japanese /kumo/ "spider"). The vocabulary of Kagoshima dialect is 84% cognate with standard Tokyo dialect. Kansai-ben, a group of dialects from west-central Japan, is spoken by many Japanese; the Osaka dialect in particular is associated with comedy.
The Ryūkyūan languages, while closely related to Japanese, are distinct enough to be considered a separate branch of the Japonic family, and are not dialects of Japanese. They are spoken in the Ryūkyū Islands and in some islands that are politically part of Kagoshima Prefecture. Not only is each language unintelligible to Japanese speakers, but most are unintelligible to those who speak other Ryūkyūan languages.
Recently, Standard Japanese has become prevalent nationwide (including portions of the Ryūkyūan islands like Okinawa) due not only to television and radio, but also to increased mobility within Japan due to its system of roads, railways, and airports. Young people usually speak their local dialect and the standard language, though in most cases, the local dialect is influenced by the standard, and regional versions of "standard" Japanese have local-dialect influence.
sounds
Japanese vowels are "pure" sounds, similar to their Spanish, Greek or Italian counterparts. The only unusual vowel is the high back vowel /ɯ/, which is like /u/, but compressed instead of rounded. Japanese has five vowels, and vowel length is phonemic, so each one has both a short and a long version.
Some Japanese consonants have several allophones, which may give the impression of a larger inventory of sounds. However, some of these allophones have since become phonemic. For example, in the Japanese up to and including the first half of the twentieth century, the phonemic sequence /ti/ was palatalized and realized phonetically as [tɕi], approximately chi; however, now /ti/ and /tɕi/ are distinct, as evidenced by words like paatii [paatii] "party" and chi [tɕi] "ground."
The r of the Japanese language (technically a lateral apical postalveolar flap), is of particular interest, sounding to most Europeans' ears to be something between an l and a retroflex r depending on its position in a word.
The syllabic structure and the phonotactics are very simple: the only consonant clusters allowed within a syllable consist of one of a subset of the consonants plus /j/. This type of clusters only occurs in onsets. However, consonant clusters across syllables are allowed as long as the two consonants are a nasal followed a homo-organic consonant. The consonant length (geminates) is also phonemic.
Some Japanese consonants have several allophones, which may give the impression of a larger inventory of sounds. However, some of these allophones have since become phonemic. For example, in the Japanese up to and including the first half of the twentieth century, the phonemic sequence /ti/ was palatalized and realized phonetically as [tɕi], approximately chi; however, now /ti/ and /tɕi/ are distinct, as evidenced by words like paatii [paatii] "party" and chi [tɕi] "ground."
The r of the Japanese language (technically a lateral apical postalveolar flap), is of particular interest, sounding to most Europeans' ears to be something between an l and a retroflex r depending on its position in a word.
The syllabic structure and the phonotactics are very simple: the only consonant clusters allowed within a syllable consist of one of a subset of the consonants plus /j/. This type of clusters only occurs in onsets. However, consonant clusters across syllables are allowed as long as the two consonants are a nasal followed a homo-organic consonant. The consonant length (geminates) is also phonemic.
Grammer
Sentence structure
The basic Japanese word order is Subject Object Verb. Subject, Object, and other grammatical relations are usually marked by particles, which are suffixed to the words that they modify, and are thus properly called postpositions.
The basic sentence structure is topic-comment. For example, Kochira-wa Tanaka-san desu. Kochira ("this") is the topic of the sentence, indicated by the particle -wa. The verb is desu, a copula, commonly translated as "to be" (though there are other verbs that can be translated as "to be"). As a phrase, Tanaka-san desu is the comment. This sentence loosely translates to "As for this person, (it) is Mr./Mrs./Ms. Tanaka." Thus Japanese, like Chinese, Korean, and many other Asian languages, is often called a topic-prominent language, which means it has a strong tendency to indicate the topic separately from the subject, and the two do not always coincide. The sentence Zō-wa hana-ga nagai (desu) literally means, "As for elephants, (their) noses are long". The topic is zō "elephant", and the subject is hana "nose".
Japanese is a pro-drop language, meaning that the subject or object of a sentence need not be stated if it is obvious from context. In addition, it is commonly felt that the shorter a Japanese sentence is, the better (a quality called "iki" in Japanese). As a result of this grammatical permissiveness and tendency towards brevity, Japanese speakers tend naturally to omit words from sentences, rather than refer to them with pronouns. In the context of the above example, hana-ga nagai would mean "[their] noses are long," while nagai by itself would mean "[they] are long." A single verb can be a complete sentence: Yatta! "[I / we / they / etc] did [it]!". In addition, since adjectives can form the predicate in a Japanese sentence (below), a single adjective can be a complete sentence: Urayamashii! "[I'm] jealous [of it]!".
While the language has some words that are translated as pronouns, these are not used as frequently as pronouns in some Indo-European languages, and function differently. Instead, Japanese typically relies on special verb forms and auxiliary verbs to indicate the "direction" of an action: "down" to the speaker or persons related to the speaker, or "up" to the listener or other person. For example, setsumei shite moratta (literally, "[I/we] obtained explaining") means "[he/she] explained it to [me/us]". Similarly, oshiete ageta (literally, "teach-handed up") is commonly used to mean "[I/we] told [him/her]". Such "directional" auxiliary verbs thus serve a function comparable to that of pronouns and prepositions in Indo-European languages to indicate the actor and the recipient of an action.
Japanese "pronouns" also function differently from most modern Indo-European pronouns (and more like nouns) in that they can take modifiers as any other noun may. For instance, one cannot say in English:
*The big he ran down the street. (ungrammatical)
But one can grammatically say essentially the same thing in Japanese:
Ōkii kare-wa michi-o hashitte itta. (grammatically correct)
This is partly due to the fact that these words evolved from regular nouns, such as kimi "you" (君 "lord"), anata "you" (貴方 "that side, yonder" or 貴女 "that woman"), and boku "I" (僕 "servant"). This is why some linguists do not classify Japanese "pronouns" as pronouns, but rather as referential nouns. Japanese personal pronouns are generally used only in situations requiring special emphasis as to who is doing what to whom.
The choice of words used as pronouns is correlated with the sex of the speaker and the social situation in which they are spoken: men and women alike in a formal situation generally refer to themselves as watashi (私 "private") or watakushi (also 私), while men in rougher or intimate conversation are much more likely to use the word ore (俺 "we", "myself") or boku. Similarly, different words such as anata, kimi, and omae (お前, more formally 御前 "the one before me") may be used to refer to a listener depending on the listener's relative social position and the degree of familiarity between the speaker and the listener. When used in different social relationships, the same word may have positive (intimate or respectful) or negative (distant or disrespectful) connotations.
Japanese often use titles of the person referred to where pronouns would be used in English. For example, when speaking to one's teacher, it is appropriate to use sensei (先生, teacher), but inappropriate to use anata. This is because anata is used to refer to people of equal or lower status, and one's teacher has higher status.
It is very common for English speakers to include watashi-wa or anata-wa at the beginning of every Japanese sentence. Though these sentences are grammatically correct, they sound terribly strange even in very formal situations. It is roughly the equivalent of using a noun over and over in English, when a pronoun would suffice: "John is coming over, so make sure you fix John a sandwich, because John loves sandwiches. I hope John likes the dress I'm wearing..."
The basic Japanese word order is Subject Object Verb. Subject, Object, and other grammatical relations are usually marked by particles, which are suffixed to the words that they modify, and are thus properly called postpositions.
The basic sentence structure is topic-comment. For example, Kochira-wa Tanaka-san desu. Kochira ("this") is the topic of the sentence, indicated by the particle -wa. The verb is desu, a copula, commonly translated as "to be" (though there are other verbs that can be translated as "to be"). As a phrase, Tanaka-san desu is the comment. This sentence loosely translates to "As for this person, (it) is Mr./Mrs./Ms. Tanaka." Thus Japanese, like Chinese, Korean, and many other Asian languages, is often called a topic-prominent language, which means it has a strong tendency to indicate the topic separately from the subject, and the two do not always coincide. The sentence Zō-wa hana-ga nagai (desu) literally means, "As for elephants, (their) noses are long". The topic is zō "elephant", and the subject is hana "nose".
Japanese is a pro-drop language, meaning that the subject or object of a sentence need not be stated if it is obvious from context. In addition, it is commonly felt that the shorter a Japanese sentence is, the better (a quality called "iki" in Japanese). As a result of this grammatical permissiveness and tendency towards brevity, Japanese speakers tend naturally to omit words from sentences, rather than refer to them with pronouns. In the context of the above example, hana-ga nagai would mean "[their] noses are long," while nagai by itself would mean "[they] are long." A single verb can be a complete sentence: Yatta! "[I / we / they / etc] did [it]!". In addition, since adjectives can form the predicate in a Japanese sentence (below), a single adjective can be a complete sentence: Urayamashii! "[I'm] jealous [of it]!".
While the language has some words that are translated as pronouns, these are not used as frequently as pronouns in some Indo-European languages, and function differently. Instead, Japanese typically relies on special verb forms and auxiliary verbs to indicate the "direction" of an action: "down" to the speaker or persons related to the speaker, or "up" to the listener or other person. For example, setsumei shite moratta (literally, "[I/we] obtained explaining") means "[he/she] explained it to [me/us]". Similarly, oshiete ageta (literally, "teach-handed up") is commonly used to mean "[I/we] told [him/her]". Such "directional" auxiliary verbs thus serve a function comparable to that of pronouns and prepositions in Indo-European languages to indicate the actor and the recipient of an action.
Japanese "pronouns" also function differently from most modern Indo-European pronouns (and more like nouns) in that they can take modifiers as any other noun may. For instance, one cannot say in English:
*The big he ran down the street. (ungrammatical)
But one can grammatically say essentially the same thing in Japanese:
Ōkii kare-wa michi-o hashitte itta. (grammatically correct)
This is partly due to the fact that these words evolved from regular nouns, such as kimi "you" (君 "lord"), anata "you" (貴方 "that side, yonder" or 貴女 "that woman"), and boku "I" (僕 "servant"). This is why some linguists do not classify Japanese "pronouns" as pronouns, but rather as referential nouns. Japanese personal pronouns are generally used only in situations requiring special emphasis as to who is doing what to whom.
The choice of words used as pronouns is correlated with the sex of the speaker and the social situation in which they are spoken: men and women alike in a formal situation generally refer to themselves as watashi (私 "private") or watakushi (also 私), while men in rougher or intimate conversation are much more likely to use the word ore (俺 "we", "myself") or boku. Similarly, different words such as anata, kimi, and omae (お前, more formally 御前 "the one before me") may be used to refer to a listener depending on the listener's relative social position and the degree of familiarity between the speaker and the listener. When used in different social relationships, the same word may have positive (intimate or respectful) or negative (distant or disrespectful) connotations.
Japanese often use titles of the person referred to where pronouns would be used in English. For example, when speaking to one's teacher, it is appropriate to use sensei (先生, teacher), but inappropriate to use anata. This is because anata is used to refer to people of equal or lower status, and one's teacher has higher status.
It is very common for English speakers to include watashi-wa or anata-wa at the beginning of every Japanese sentence. Though these sentences are grammatically correct, they sound terribly strange even in very formal situations. It is roughly the equivalent of using a noun over and over in English, when a pronoun would suffice: "John is coming over, so make sure you fix John a sandwich, because John loves sandwiches. I hope John likes the dress I'm wearing..."
Inflection and conjugation
Japanese has no grammatical number or gender. The noun hon (本) may refer to a single book or several books; hito (人) can mean "person" or "people"; and ki (木) can be "tree" or "trees". Where number is important, it can be indicated by providing a quantity (often with a counter word) or (rarely) by adding a suffix. Words for people are usually understood as singular. Thus Tanaka-san usually means Mr./Ms. Tanaka. Words that refer to people and animals can be made to indicate a group of individuals through the addition of a collective suffix (a noun suffix that indicates a group), such as -tachi, but this is not a true plural: the meaning is closer to the English phrase "and company". A group described as Tanaka-san-tachi may include people not named Tanaka. Some Japanese nouns are effectively plural, such as hitobito "people" and wareware "we/us", but these are sporadic and irregular.
Verbs are conjugated to show tenses, of which there are two: past and present, or non-past, which is used for the present and the future. For verbs that represent an ongoing process, the -te iru form indicates a continuous (or progressive) tense. For others that represent a change of state, the -te iru form indicates a perfect tense. For example, kite iru means "He has come (and is still here)", but tabete iru means "He is eating".
Questions (both with an interrogative pronoun and yes/no questions) have the same structure as affirmative sentences, but with intonation rising at the end. In the formal register, the question particle -ka is added. For example, Ii desu "It is OK" becomes Ii desu-ka "Is it OK?". In a more informal tone sometimes the particle -no is added instead to show a personal interest of the speaker: Dōshite konai-no? "Why aren't (you) coming?". Some simple queries are formed simply by mentioning the topic with an interrogative intonation to call for the hearer's attention: Kore-wa? "(What about) this?"; Namae-wa? "(What's your) name?".
Negatives are formed by inflecting the verb. For example, Pan-o taberu "I will eat bread" or "I eat bread" becomes Pan-o tabenai "I will not eat bread" or "I do not eat bread".
The so-called -te verb form is used for a variety of purposes: either progressive or perfect aspect (see above); combining verbs in a temporal sequence (Asagohan-o tabete sugu dekakeru "I'll eat breakfast and leave at once"), simple commands, conditional statements and permissions (Dekakete-mo ii? "May I go out?"), etc.
The word da (plain), desu (polite) is the copula verb. It corresponds approximately to the English be, but often takes on other roles. Two additional common verbs are used to indicate existence ("there is") or, in some contexts, property: aru (negative nai) and iru (negative inai), for inanimate and animate things, respectively. For example, Neko ga iru "There's a cat", Ii kangae-ga nai "[I] haven't got a good idea".
The verb "to do" (suru, polite form shimasu) is often used to make verbs from nouns (ryōri suru "to cook", benkyō suru "to study", etc.) and has been productive in creating modern slang words. Japanese also has a huge number of compound verbs to express concepts that are described in English using a verb and a preposition (e.g. tobidasu "to fly out, to flee," from tobu "to fly, to jump" + dasu "to put out, to emit").
There are three types of adjective (see also Japanese adjectives):
keiyōshi, or i adjectives, which have a conjugating ending i (such as atsui, "to be hot") which can become past (atsukatta - "it was hot"), or negative (atsuku nai - "it is not hot"). Note that nai is also an i adjective, which can become past (atsuku nakatta - it was not hot).
atsui hi "a hot day".
keiyōdōshi, or na adjectives, which are followed by a form of the copula, usually na. For example hen (strange)
hen na hito "a strange person".
rentaishi, also called true adjectives, such as onaji "the same"
onaji hi "the same day".
Both keiyōshi and keiyōdōshi may predicate sentences. For example,
Gohan-ga atsui. "The rice is hot."
Kare-wa hen da. "He's strange."
Both inflect, though they do not show the full range of conjugation found in true verbs. The rentaishi in Modern Japanese are few in number, and unlike the other words, are limited to directly modifying nouns. They never predicate sentences. Examples include ookina "big" and onaji "the same" (although there is also a noun onaji that can be followed by da, as in onaji da).
Both keiyōdōshi and keiyōshi form adverbs, by following with ni in the case of keiyōdōshi:
hen ni naru "become strange",
and by changing i to ku in the case of keiyōshi:
atsuku naru "become hot".
The grammatical function of nouns is indicated by postpositions, also called particles. These include for example:
ga for the nominative case. Not necessarily a subject.
Kare ga yatta. "He did it."
ni for the dative case.
Tanaka-san ni kiite kudasai "Please ask Mr. Tanaka."
no for the genitive case, or nominalizing phrases.
watashi no kamera "my camera"
Sukī-ni iku no ga suki desu "(I) like going skiing."
o for the accusative case. Not necessarily an object.
Nani o tabemasu ka? "What will (you) eat?"
wa for the topic. It can co-exist with case markers above except no, and it overrides ga and o.
Watashi wa tai-ryōri ga ii desu. "As for me, Thai food is good." The nominative marker ga after watashi is hidden under wa. (Note that English generally makes no distinction between sentence topic and subject.)
Note: The difference between wa and ga goes beyond the English distinction between sentence topic and subject. While wa indicates the topic, which the rest of the sentence describes or acts upon, it carries the implication that the subject indicated by wa is not unique, or may be part of a larger group.
Ikeda-san wa yonjū-ni sai da. "As for Mr. Ikeda, he is forty-two years old." Others in the group may also be of that age.
Absence of wa often means the subject is the focus of the sentence.
Ikeda-san ga yonjū-ni sai da. "It is Mr. Ikeda who is forty-two years old." This is a reply to an implicit or explicit question who in this group is forty-two years old.
Japanese has no grammatical number or gender. The noun hon (本) may refer to a single book or several books; hito (人) can mean "person" or "people"; and ki (木) can be "tree" or "trees". Where number is important, it can be indicated by providing a quantity (often with a counter word) or (rarely) by adding a suffix. Words for people are usually understood as singular. Thus Tanaka-san usually means Mr./Ms. Tanaka. Words that refer to people and animals can be made to indicate a group of individuals through the addition of a collective suffix (a noun suffix that indicates a group), such as -tachi, but this is not a true plural: the meaning is closer to the English phrase "and company". A group described as Tanaka-san-tachi may include people not named Tanaka. Some Japanese nouns are effectively plural, such as hitobito "people" and wareware "we/us", but these are sporadic and irregular.
Verbs are conjugated to show tenses, of which there are two: past and present, or non-past, which is used for the present and the future. For verbs that represent an ongoing process, the -te iru form indicates a continuous (or progressive) tense. For others that represent a change of state, the -te iru form indicates a perfect tense. For example, kite iru means "He has come (and is still here)", but tabete iru means "He is eating".
Questions (both with an interrogative pronoun and yes/no questions) have the same structure as affirmative sentences, but with intonation rising at the end. In the formal register, the question particle -ka is added. For example, Ii desu "It is OK" becomes Ii desu-ka "Is it OK?". In a more informal tone sometimes the particle -no is added instead to show a personal interest of the speaker: Dōshite konai-no? "Why aren't (you) coming?". Some simple queries are formed simply by mentioning the topic with an interrogative intonation to call for the hearer's attention: Kore-wa? "(What about) this?"; Namae-wa? "(What's your) name?".
Negatives are formed by inflecting the verb. For example, Pan-o taberu "I will eat bread" or "I eat bread" becomes Pan-o tabenai "I will not eat bread" or "I do not eat bread".
The so-called -te verb form is used for a variety of purposes: either progressive or perfect aspect (see above); combining verbs in a temporal sequence (Asagohan-o tabete sugu dekakeru "I'll eat breakfast and leave at once"), simple commands, conditional statements and permissions (Dekakete-mo ii? "May I go out?"), etc.
The word da (plain), desu (polite) is the copula verb. It corresponds approximately to the English be, but often takes on other roles. Two additional common verbs are used to indicate existence ("there is") or, in some contexts, property: aru (negative nai) and iru (negative inai), for inanimate and animate things, respectively. For example, Neko ga iru "There's a cat", Ii kangae-ga nai "[I] haven't got a good idea".
The verb "to do" (suru, polite form shimasu) is often used to make verbs from nouns (ryōri suru "to cook", benkyō suru "to study", etc.) and has been productive in creating modern slang words. Japanese also has a huge number of compound verbs to express concepts that are described in English using a verb and a preposition (e.g. tobidasu "to fly out, to flee," from tobu "to fly, to jump" + dasu "to put out, to emit").
There are three types of adjective (see also Japanese adjectives):
keiyōshi, or i adjectives, which have a conjugating ending i (such as atsui, "to be hot") which can become past (atsukatta - "it was hot"), or negative (atsuku nai - "it is not hot"). Note that nai is also an i adjective, which can become past (atsuku nakatta - it was not hot).
atsui hi "a hot day".
keiyōdōshi, or na adjectives, which are followed by a form of the copula, usually na. For example hen (strange)
hen na hito "a strange person".
rentaishi, also called true adjectives, such as onaji "the same"
onaji hi "the same day".
Both keiyōshi and keiyōdōshi may predicate sentences. For example,
Gohan-ga atsui. "The rice is hot."
Kare-wa hen da. "He's strange."
Both inflect, though they do not show the full range of conjugation found in true verbs. The rentaishi in Modern Japanese are few in number, and unlike the other words, are limited to directly modifying nouns. They never predicate sentences. Examples include ookina "big" and onaji "the same" (although there is also a noun onaji that can be followed by da, as in onaji da).
Both keiyōdōshi and keiyōshi form adverbs, by following with ni in the case of keiyōdōshi:
hen ni naru "become strange",
and by changing i to ku in the case of keiyōshi:
atsuku naru "become hot".
The grammatical function of nouns is indicated by postpositions, also called particles. These include for example:
ga for the nominative case. Not necessarily a subject.
Kare ga yatta. "He did it."
ni for the dative case.
Tanaka-san ni kiite kudasai "Please ask Mr. Tanaka."
no for the genitive case, or nominalizing phrases.
watashi no kamera "my camera"
Sukī-ni iku no ga suki desu "(I) like going skiing."
o for the accusative case. Not necessarily an object.
Nani o tabemasu ka? "What will (you) eat?"
wa for the topic. It can co-exist with case markers above except no, and it overrides ga and o.
Watashi wa tai-ryōri ga ii desu. "As for me, Thai food is good." The nominative marker ga after watashi is hidden under wa. (Note that English generally makes no distinction between sentence topic and subject.)
Note: The difference between wa and ga goes beyond the English distinction between sentence topic and subject. While wa indicates the topic, which the rest of the sentence describes or acts upon, it carries the implication that the subject indicated by wa is not unique, or may be part of a larger group.
Ikeda-san wa yonjū-ni sai da. "As for Mr. Ikeda, he is forty-two years old." Others in the group may also be of that age.
Absence of wa often means the subject is the focus of the sentence.
Ikeda-san ga yonjū-ni sai da. "It is Mr. Ikeda who is forty-two years old." This is a reply to an implicit or explicit question who in this group is forty-two years old.
Politeness
Unlike most western languages, Japanese has an extensive grammatical system to express politeness and formality.
Broadly speaking, there are three main politeness levels in spoken Japanese: the plain form (futsūgo 普通語), the simple polite form (teineigo 丁寧語) and the advanced polite form (keigo 敬語).
Since most relationships are not equal in Japanese society, one person typically has a higher position. This position is determined by a variety of factors including job, age, experience, or even psychological state (e.g., a person asking a favour tends to do so politely). The person in the lower position is expected to use a polite form of speech, whereas the other might use a more plain form. Strangers will also speak to each other politely. Japanese children rarely use polite speech until they are teens, at which point they are expected to begin speaking in a more adult manner. See uchi-soto
The plain form in Japanese is recognized by the shorter, dictionary form of verbs, and the da form of the copula. At the teinei level, verbs end with the helping verb -masu, and the copula desu is used. The advanced polite form, keigo, actually consists of two kinds of politeness: honorific language (sonkeigo 尊敬語) and humble (kenjōgo 謙譲語) language. Whereas teineigo is an inflectional system, keigo often employs many special honorific and humble verb forms: iku "to go" becomes ikimasu in polite form, but is replaced by mairimasu in humble speech and irasshaimasu in honorific speech.
The difference between honorific and humble speech is particularly pronounced in the Japanese language. Humble language is used to talk about oneself or one's own group (company, family) whilst honorific language is mostly used when describing the interlocutor and his/her group. For example, the -san suffix ("Mr" or "Ms") is an example of honorific language. It is not used to talk about oneself or when talking about someone from one's company to an external person, since the company is the speaker's "group". When speaking directly to one's superior in one's company or when speaking with other employees within one's company about a superior, a Japanese person will use vocabulary and inflections of the honorific register to refer to the in-group superior and his or her speech and actions. When speaking to a person from another company (i.e., a member of an out-group), however, a Japanese person will use the plain or the humble register to refer to the speech and actions of his or her own in-group superiors. In short, the register used in Japanese to refer to the person, speech, or actions of any particular individual varies depending on the relationship (either in-group or out-group) between the speaker and listener, as well as depending on the relative status of the speaker, listener, and third-person referents. For this reason, the Japanese system for explicit indication of social register is known as a system of "relative honorifics." This stands in stark contrast to the Korean system of "absolute honorifics," in which the same register is used to refer to a particular individual (e.g. one's father, one's company president, etc.) in any context regardless of the relationship between the speaker and interlocutor. Thus, polite Korean speech can sound very presumptuous when translated verbatim into Japanese, as in Korean it is acceptable and normal to say things like "Our Mr. Company-President..." when communicating with a member of an out-group, which would be very inappropriate in a Japanese social context.
Most nouns in the Japanese language may be made polite by the addition of o- or go- as a prefix. o- is generally used for words of native Japanese origin, whereas go- is affixed to words of Chinese derivation. In some cases, the prefix has become a fixed part of the word, and is included even in regular speech, such as gohan 'cooked rice; meal.' Such a construction often indicates deference to either the item's owner or to the object itself. For example, the word tomodachi 'friend,' would become o-tomodachi when referring to the friend of someone of higher status (though mothers often use this form to refer to their children's friends). On the other hand, a polite female speaker may sometimes refer to mizu 'water' as o-mizu merely to show politeness; this contrasts with the more abrupt speech of rude men (though men may also use very polite forms when speaking to superiors). See Gender differences in spoken Japanese.
Most Japanese people employ politeness to indicate a lack of familiarity. That is, they use polite forms for new acquaintances, but if a relationship becomes more intimate, they no longer use them. This occurs regardless of age, social class, or gender.
Many researchers report[citation needed] that since the 1990s, the use of polite forms has become rarer. Needless to say, many older people disapprove of this trend. Young people usually receive extensive training in the "proper" use of polite language when they start to work for a company.
Broadly speaking, there are three main politeness levels in spoken Japanese: the plain form (futsūgo 普通語), the simple polite form (teineigo 丁寧語) and the advanced polite form (keigo 敬語).
Since most relationships are not equal in Japanese society, one person typically has a higher position. This position is determined by a variety of factors including job, age, experience, or even psychological state (e.g., a person asking a favour tends to do so politely). The person in the lower position is expected to use a polite form of speech, whereas the other might use a more plain form. Strangers will also speak to each other politely. Japanese children rarely use polite speech until they are teens, at which point they are expected to begin speaking in a more adult manner. See uchi-soto
The plain form in Japanese is recognized by the shorter, dictionary form of verbs, and the da form of the copula. At the teinei level, verbs end with the helping verb -masu, and the copula desu is used. The advanced polite form, keigo, actually consists of two kinds of politeness: honorific language (sonkeigo 尊敬語) and humble (kenjōgo 謙譲語) language. Whereas teineigo is an inflectional system, keigo often employs many special honorific and humble verb forms: iku "to go" becomes ikimasu in polite form, but is replaced by mairimasu in humble speech and irasshaimasu in honorific speech.
The difference between honorific and humble speech is particularly pronounced in the Japanese language. Humble language is used to talk about oneself or one's own group (company, family) whilst honorific language is mostly used when describing the interlocutor and his/her group. For example, the -san suffix ("Mr" or "Ms") is an example of honorific language. It is not used to talk about oneself or when talking about someone from one's company to an external person, since the company is the speaker's "group". When speaking directly to one's superior in one's company or when speaking with other employees within one's company about a superior, a Japanese person will use vocabulary and inflections of the honorific register to refer to the in-group superior and his or her speech and actions. When speaking to a person from another company (i.e., a member of an out-group), however, a Japanese person will use the plain or the humble register to refer to the speech and actions of his or her own in-group superiors. In short, the register used in Japanese to refer to the person, speech, or actions of any particular individual varies depending on the relationship (either in-group or out-group) between the speaker and listener, as well as depending on the relative status of the speaker, listener, and third-person referents. For this reason, the Japanese system for explicit indication of social register is known as a system of "relative honorifics." This stands in stark contrast to the Korean system of "absolute honorifics," in which the same register is used to refer to a particular individual (e.g. one's father, one's company president, etc.) in any context regardless of the relationship between the speaker and interlocutor. Thus, polite Korean speech can sound very presumptuous when translated verbatim into Japanese, as in Korean it is acceptable and normal to say things like "Our Mr. Company-President..." when communicating with a member of an out-group, which would be very inappropriate in a Japanese social context.
Most nouns in the Japanese language may be made polite by the addition of o- or go- as a prefix. o- is generally used for words of native Japanese origin, whereas go- is affixed to words of Chinese derivation. In some cases, the prefix has become a fixed part of the word, and is included even in regular speech, such as gohan 'cooked rice; meal.' Such a construction often indicates deference to either the item's owner or to the object itself. For example, the word tomodachi 'friend,' would become o-tomodachi when referring to the friend of someone of higher status (though mothers often use this form to refer to their children's friends). On the other hand, a polite female speaker may sometimes refer to mizu 'water' as o-mizu merely to show politeness; this contrasts with the more abrupt speech of rude men (though men may also use very polite forms when speaking to superiors). See Gender differences in spoken Japanese.
Most Japanese people employ politeness to indicate a lack of familiarity. That is, they use polite forms for new acquaintances, but if a relationship becomes more intimate, they no longer use them. This occurs regardless of age, social class, or gender.
Many researchers report[citation needed] that since the 1990s, the use of polite forms has become rarer. Needless to say, many older people disapprove of this trend. Young people usually receive extensive training in the "proper" use of polite language when they start to work for a company.
Vocabulary
The original language of Japan, or at least the original language of a certain population that was ancestral to a significant portion of the historical and present Japanese nation, was the so-called yamato kotoba (大和言葉 or 大和詞, i.e. "Yamato words"）, which in scholarly contexts is sometimes referred to as wa-go (倭語 or 和語, i.e. the "Wa language"). In addition to words from this original language, present-day Japanese includes a great number of words that were either borrowed from Chinese or constructed from Chinese roots following Chinese patterns. These words, known as kango, entered the language from the fifth century onwards via contact with Chinese culture, both directly and through the Korean peninsula. According to some estimates, Chinese-based words comprise as much as seventy percent of the total vocabulary of the modern Japanese language and form as much as thirty to forty percent of words used in speech.
Like Latin-derived words in English, kango words typically are perceived as somewhat formal or academic compared to equivalent Yamato words. Indeed, it is generally fair to say that an English word derived from Latin/French roots typically corresponds to a Sino-Japanese word in Japanese, whereas a simpler Anglo-Saxon word would best be translated by a Yamato equivalent.
A much smaller number of words has been borrowed from Korean and Ainu. Japan has also borrowed a number of words from other languages, particularly ones of European extraction, which are called gairaigo. This began with borrowings from Portuguese in the 16th century, followed by borrowing from Dutch during Japan's long isolation of the Edo period. With the Meiji Restoration and the reopening of Japan in the 19th century, borrowing occurred from German, French and English. Currently, words of English origin are the most commonly borrowed.
In the Meiji era, the Japanese also coined many neologisms using Chinese roots and morphology to translate Western concepts. The Chinese and Koreans imported many of these pseudo-Chinese words into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese via their kanji characters in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For example, 政治 seiji ("politics"), and 化学 kagaku ("chemistry") are words derived from Chinese roots that were first created and used by the Japanese, and only later borrowed into Chinese and other East Asian languages. As a result, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese share a large common corpus of vocabulary in the same way a large number of Greek- and Latin-derived words are shared among modern European languages, although many academic words formed from such roots were certainly coined by native speakers of other languages, such as English.
In the past few decades, wasei-eigo (made-in-Japan English) has become a prominent phenomenon. Words such as wanpataan (<>
Like Latin-derived words in English, kango words typically are perceived as somewhat formal or academic compared to equivalent Yamato words. Indeed, it is generally fair to say that an English word derived from Latin/French roots typically corresponds to a Sino-Japanese word in Japanese, whereas a simpler Anglo-Saxon word would best be translated by a Yamato equivalent.
A much smaller number of words has been borrowed from Korean and Ainu. Japan has also borrowed a number of words from other languages, particularly ones of European extraction, which are called gairaigo. This began with borrowings from Portuguese in the 16th century, followed by borrowing from Dutch during Japan's long isolation of the Edo period. With the Meiji Restoration and the reopening of Japan in the 19th century, borrowing occurred from German, French and English. Currently, words of English origin are the most commonly borrowed.
In the Meiji era, the Japanese also coined many neologisms using Chinese roots and morphology to translate Western concepts. The Chinese and Koreans imported many of these pseudo-Chinese words into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese via their kanji characters in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For example, 政治 seiji ("politics"), and 化学 kagaku ("chemistry") are words derived from Chinese roots that were first created and used by the Japanese, and only later borrowed into Chinese and other East Asian languages. As a result, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese share a large common corpus of vocabulary in the same way a large number of Greek- and Latin-derived words are shared among modern European languages, although many academic words formed from such roots were certainly coined by native speakers of other languages, such as English.
In the past few decades, wasei-eigo (made-in-Japan English) has become a prominent phenomenon. Words such as wanpataan (<>
Before the 5th century, the Japanese had no writing system of their own. They began to adopt the Chinese writing script along with many other aspects of Chinese culture after their introduction by Korean monks and scholars during the 5th and 6th centuries AD.
The table of KanaAt first, the Japanese wrote in Classical Chinese, with Japanese names represented by characters used for their meanings and not their sounds. Later, this latter principle was used to write pure Japanese poetry and prose; however, some Japanese words were written with characters for their meaning and not the original Chinese sound. An example of this mixed style is the Kojiki, which was written in 712 AD. They then started to use Chinese characters to write Japanese in a style known as man'yōgana, a syllabic script which used Chinese characters for their sounds in order to transcribe the words of Japanese speech syllable by syllable.
Over time, a writing system evolved. Chinese characters (kanji) were used to write either words borrowed from Chinese, or Japanese words with the same or similar meanings. Chinese characters were also used to write grammatical elements, were simplified, and eventually became two syllabic scripts: hiragana and katakana.
Modern Japanese is written in a mixture of three main systems: kanji, characters of Chinese origin used to represent both Chinese loanwords into Japanese and a number of native Japanese morphemes; and two syllabaries: hiragana and katakana. The Latin alphabet is also sometimes used. Arabic numerals are much more common than the kanji characters when used in counting, but kanji numerals are still used in compounds, such as 統一 tōitsu ("unification").
Hiragana are used for words without kanji representation, for words no longer written in kanji, and also following kanji to show conjugational endings. Because of the way verbs (and adjectives) in Japanese are conjugated, kanji alone cannot fully convey Japanese tense and mood, as kanji cannot be subject to variation when written without losing its meaning. For this reason, hiragana are suffixed to the ends of kanji to show verb and adjective conjugations. Hiragana used in this way are called okurigana. Hiragana are also written in a superscript called furigana above or beside a kanji to show the proper reading. This is done to facilitate learning, as well as to clarify particularly old or obscure (or sometimes invented) readings.
Katakana, like hiragana, are a syllabary; katakana are primarily used to write foreign words, plant and animal names, and for emphasis. For example "Australia" has been adapted as Ōsutoraria, and "supermarket" has been adapted and shortened into sūpā. Rōmaji (ローマ字), literally "Roman letters," is the Japanese term for the Latin alphabet. Rōmaji are used for some loan words like "CD", "DVD", etc., and also for some Japanese creations like "Sony."
Japanese students begin to learn kanji characters from their first year at elementary school. A guideline created by the Japanese Ministry of Education, the list of kyōiku kanji, specifies the 1,006 simple characters a child is to learn by the end of sixth grade. Children continue to study another 939 characters in junior high school, covering in total 1,945 jōyō kanji ("common use kanji") characters, which is generally considered sufficient for everyday life, although many kanji used in everyday life are not included in the list. An appendix of 290 additional characters for names was decreed in 1951. Various semi-official bodies were set up to monitor and enforce restrictions on the use of kanji in the press, publishing, in television broadcasts, etc. Thereafter, the official list of kyōiku kanji was repeatedly revised, but the total number of officially sanctioned characters remained largely unchanged.
A different list of officially approved kanji is used for purposes of registering personal names. Names containing unapproved characters are denied registration. However, as with the list of kyōiku kanji, criteria for inclusion were often arbitrary and led to many common and popular characters being disapproved for use. Under popular pressure and following a court decision holding the exclusion of common characters unlawful, the list of "approved" characters was substantially extended. Furthermore, families whose names are not on these lists were permitted to continue using the older forms.
Historically, attempts to limit the number of kanji in use commenced in the mid-19th century, but did not become a matter of government intervention until after Japan's defeat in the Second World War. During the period of post-war occupation (and influenced by the views of some U.S. officials), various schemes including the complete abolition of kanji and exclusive use of rōmaji were considered. The kyōiku kanji scheme arose as a compromise solution.
Many major universities throughout the world provide Japanese language courses, and a number of secondary and even primary schools worldwide offer courses in the language. International interest in the Japanese language dates from the 1800s but has become more prevalent following Japan's economic bubble of the 1980s and the global popularity of Japanese pop culture since the 1990s. About 2.3 million people studied the language worldwide in 2003: 900,000 South Koreans, 389,000 Chinese, 381,000 Australians, and 140,000 Americans study Japanese in lower and higher educational institutions. In Japan, more than 90,000 foreign students study at Japanese universities and Japanese language schools, including 77,000 Chinese and 15,000 South Koreans in 2003. In addition, local governments and some NPO groups provide free Japanese language classes for foreign residents, including Japanese Brazilians and foreigners married to Japanese nationals.
The Japanese government provides standardized tests to measure spoken and written comprehension of Japanese for second language learners; the most prominent is the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT). The Japanese External Trade Organization JETRO organizes the Business Japanese Proficiency Test which tests the learner's ability to understand Japanese in a business setting. See also British Association for Japanese Studies.
The table of KanaAt first, the Japanese wrote in Classical Chinese, with Japanese names represented by characters used for their meanings and not their sounds. Later, this latter principle was used to write pure Japanese poetry and prose; however, some Japanese words were written with characters for their meaning and not the original Chinese sound. An example of this mixed style is the Kojiki, which was written in 712 AD. They then started to use Chinese characters to write Japanese in a style known as man'yōgana, a syllabic script which used Chinese characters for their sounds in order to transcribe the words of Japanese speech syllable by syllable.
Over time, a writing system evolved. Chinese characters (kanji) were used to write either words borrowed from Chinese, or Japanese words with the same or similar meanings. Chinese characters were also used to write grammatical elements, were simplified, and eventually became two syllabic scripts: hiragana and katakana.
Modern Japanese is written in a mixture of three main systems: kanji, characters of Chinese origin used to represent both Chinese loanwords into Japanese and a number of native Japanese morphemes; and two syllabaries: hiragana and katakana. The Latin alphabet is also sometimes used. Arabic numerals are much more common than the kanji characters when used in counting, but kanji numerals are still used in compounds, such as 統一 tōitsu ("unification").
Hiragana are used for words without kanji representation, for words no longer written in kanji, and also following kanji to show conjugational endings. Because of the way verbs (and adjectives) in Japanese are conjugated, kanji alone cannot fully convey Japanese tense and mood, as kanji cannot be subject to variation when written without losing its meaning. For this reason, hiragana are suffixed to the ends of kanji to show verb and adjective conjugations. Hiragana used in this way are called okurigana. Hiragana are also written in a superscript called furigana above or beside a kanji to show the proper reading. This is done to facilitate learning, as well as to clarify particularly old or obscure (or sometimes invented) readings.
Katakana, like hiragana, are a syllabary; katakana are primarily used to write foreign words, plant and animal names, and for emphasis. For example "Australia" has been adapted as Ōsutoraria, and "supermarket" has been adapted and shortened into sūpā. Rōmaji (ローマ字), literally "Roman letters," is the Japanese term for the Latin alphabet. Rōmaji are used for some loan words like "CD", "DVD", etc., and also for some Japanese creations like "Sony."
Japanese students begin to learn kanji characters from their first year at elementary school. A guideline created by the Japanese Ministry of Education, the list of kyōiku kanji, specifies the 1,006 simple characters a child is to learn by the end of sixth grade. Children continue to study another 939 characters in junior high school, covering in total 1,945 jōyō kanji ("common use kanji") characters, which is generally considered sufficient for everyday life, although many kanji used in everyday life are not included in the list. An appendix of 290 additional characters for names was decreed in 1951. Various semi-official bodies were set up to monitor and enforce restrictions on the use of kanji in the press, publishing, in television broadcasts, etc. Thereafter, the official list of kyōiku kanji was repeatedly revised, but the total number of officially sanctioned characters remained largely unchanged.
A different list of officially approved kanji is used for purposes of registering personal names. Names containing unapproved characters are denied registration. However, as with the list of kyōiku kanji, criteria for inclusion were often arbitrary and led to many common and popular characters being disapproved for use. Under popular pressure and following a court decision holding the exclusion of common characters unlawful, the list of "approved" characters was substantially extended. Furthermore, families whose names are not on these lists were permitted to continue using the older forms.
Historically, attempts to limit the number of kanji in use commenced in the mid-19th century, but did not become a matter of government intervention until after Japan's defeat in the Second World War. During the period of post-war occupation (and influenced by the views of some U.S. officials), various schemes including the complete abolition of kanji and exclusive use of rōmaji were considered. The kyōiku kanji scheme arose as a compromise solution.
Many major universities throughout the world provide Japanese language courses, and a number of secondary and even primary schools worldwide offer courses in the language. International interest in the Japanese language dates from the 1800s but has become more prevalent following Japan's economic bubble of the 1980s and the global popularity of Japanese pop culture since the 1990s. About 2.3 million people studied the language worldwide in 2003: 900,000 South Koreans, 389,000 Chinese, 381,000 Australians, and 140,000 Americans study Japanese in lower and higher educational institutions. In Japan, more than 90,000 foreign students study at Japanese universities and Japanese language schools, including 77,000 Chinese and 15,000 South Koreans in 2003. In addition, local governments and some NPO groups provide free Japanese language classes for foreign residents, including Japanese Brazilians and foreigners married to Japanese nationals.
The Japanese government provides standardized tests to measure spoken and written comprehension of Japanese for second language learners; the most prominent is the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT). The Japanese External Trade Organization JETRO organizes the Business Japanese Proficiency Test which tests the learner's ability to understand Japanese in a business setting. See also British Association for Japanese Studies.
Japan (Japanese: 日本/日本国 (Nihon or Nippon, officially Nihon-koku or Nippon-koku, (Japanese: 日本/日本国?) is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of China, Korea, and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name literally mean "sun-origin," thus Japan is sometimes identified as the "Land of the Rising Sun," derived from the country's eastward position relative to China. Its capital and largest city is Tokyo.
Over 3,000 islands, the largest of which are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū, and Shikoku, make up the nation of Japan. Most of the islands are mountainous, and many are volcanic including the highest peak, Mount Fuji. Japan has the world's 10th largest population, with about 128 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, with over 30 million residents, is the largest metropolitan area in the world.
Archaeological research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the upper paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan begins with brief appearances in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from the outside world followed by long periods of isolation characterize Japan's history. Thus, its culture today is a mixture of outside influences and internal developments. Since adopting its constitution on May 3, 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament, the Diet, which is one of the oldest legislative bodies in Asia.
Japan is an economic world power with the world's second largest economy (by nominal GDP). It is also the world's largest international creditor and the sixth largest exporter and importer and a member of the United Nations, G8, and APEC.
The first signs of civilization on the Japanese Archipelago appeared around 10,000 BC with the Jomon culture, characterized by a mesolithic to neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer lifestyle of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of agriculture. Weaving was still unknown and clothes were often made of bark. The Jomon people made decorated clay vessels, however, often with plaited patterns. Some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world may be found in Japan.[1]
The Yayoi period, starting around the 3rd century BC, marked the influx of new practices such as wet-rice farming, iron and bronze-making, and a new style of pottery, brought by migrants from the Chinese mainland and the Korean peninsula. With the development of Yayoi culture, a predominantly agricultural society emerged on the Japanese archipelago.
The Japanese first appear in written history in 57 AD, in China's Book of Later Han, as "the people of Wa, formed from more than one hundred tribes." According to China's Book of Wei, the most powerful kingdom in 3rd century Japan was called Yamataikoku, which was ruled by the legendary Queen Himiko.
The Great Buddha at Tōdaiji, Nara, originally cast in 752
The Kofun period, from the 3rd century to the 7th century, saw the establishment of a dominant polity centered in the Yamato area whence arose the Japanese imperial lineage.
In the 6th century, the Korean kingdom of Baekje introduced Buddhism to Japan, and it was promoted by the ruling class. Prince Shōtoku devoted his efforts to the spread of Buddhism and Chinese culture and is credited with bringing relative peace to Japan through the proclamation of the Seventeen-article constitution.
Starting with the Taika Reform Edicts of 645, the Yamato court intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices and reorganized the government and the penal code based on the Chinese administrative structure of the time.[5] This paved the way for the dominance of Confucian philosophy in Japan until the 19th century. This period also saw the first use of the word Nihon (日本?) as a name for the emerging state.
The Nara period of the 8th century marked the first emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered around an imperial court in the city of Heijō-kyō. The imperial court then moved briefly to Nagaoka, and then to Heian-kyō (now Kyoto).
The beginning of Japanese historical writing culminated in the early 8th century with the massive chronicles, Kojiki (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and Nihonshoki (Chronicles of Japan, 720). According to these sources, Japan was founded in the 7th century BC by the ancestral Emperor Jimmu, a direct descendant of the Shinto deity Amaterasu. It is claimed that he started a line of emperors that remains unbroken to this day. However, historians believe the first emperor who actually existed was Emperor Ojin, though the date of his reign is uncertain.
In the Heian period, from 794 to 1185, a distinctly indigenous culture emerged, noted for its art, especially poetry and literature. In the early 11th century, Lady Murasaki wrote the world's oldest surviving novel, The Tale of Genji. The Fujiwara clan's regency dominated politics during this period.
Feudal era
The samurai Hasekura Tsunenaga, Japan's first official ambassador to the Americas and Europe, in 1615.
Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the rival Taira clan, Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed Shōgun and established a base of power in Kamakura near present-day Tokyo. After Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the Hōjō, came to rule as regents for the shoguns. The Kamakura shogunate managed to repel Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, with assistance from a storm that the Japanese interpreted as a kamikaze, or Divine Wind. The Kamakura shogunate lasted another fifty years and was eventually overthrown by Ashikaga Takauji in 1333. The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to manage the feudal warlords — the daimyo — and a civil war erupted. The Ōnin War (1467 to 1477) is generally regarded as the onset of the "Warring States" or Sengoku period.
During the 16th century, traders and missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. Oda Nobunaga conquered numerous other daimyo by using European technology and firearms, and had almost unified the nation when he was assassinated in 1582. Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga and united the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi invaded Korea twice, but was thwarted by Korean and Ming Chinese forces. Following several defeats and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1597.
One of Japan's Red seal ships (1634), which were used for trade throughout Asia.
After Hideyoshi's death, Tokugawa Ieyasu utilized his position as the regent of Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori as well as the conflicts among loyalists of the Toyotomi clan, to gain the support of warlords. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shōgun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo).
After defeating Toyotomi clan, at the Siege of Osaka in 1614 and 1615, the Tokugawa clan became the rulers of Japan, setting up a centralized feudal system. The Tokugawa shogunate enacted a variety of measures to control the daimyo, among them the sankin-kōtai policy of enforced rotation between fiefs and attendance in Edo. In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period. This is often considered to be the height of Japan's medieval culture. The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued during this period through contacts with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku. Literally translated, this means "Japanese studies," though it more correctly is represented by the study of native Japan by the Japanese themselves.
Modern Japan
Samurai of the Satsuma clan, during the Boshin War period, circa 1867 - Photograph by Felice Beato.
On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa. The Boshin War of 1867-1868 led to the resignation of the shogunate, and the Meiji Restoration established a government centered around the emperor. Japan adopted numerous Western institutions, including a modern government, legal system, and military. A parliamentary system modeled after the British parliament was introduced, with Ito Hirobumi as the first Prime Minister in 1882.
The Meiji era reforms helped transform the Empire of Japan into a world power that embarked on a number of military conflicts to increase access to natural resources, with victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), which was the first time that an Asian country defeated an European imperial power. By 1910, Japan controlled Korea, and the southern half of Sakhalin.
The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taisho democracy" overshadowed by the rise of Japanese expansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence and territorial holdings. Japan continued its expansionist policy by occupying Manchuria in 1931. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, later joining the Axis Powers in 1941.
Japan invaded China again, starting the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), and invaded Southeast Asia and islands in the Pacific Ocean. As a result of its aggression, the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor and declared war on the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. This brought the United States into World War II.
The 1945 atomic bombing of Nagasaki
During the course of the Pacific War, Japanese forces in occupied territory were neutralized. Strategic bombing of major cities like Tokyo and Osaka killed thousands of civilians. After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender.[7] The Japanese Instrument of Surrender was signed on September 2, 1945 (V-J Day). The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (on May 3, 1946) was convened to prosecute Japanese leaders for crimes against peace and humanity as well as war crimes such as the Nanking Massacre. Emperor Hirohito received immunity from prosecution and retained his position as emperor.
The war cost Japan millions of lives and left much of the country's industry and infrastructure destroyed. In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution, seeking international cooperation and emphasizing human rights and democratic practices. Official American occupation lasted until 1952 and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. Under a program of aggressive industrial development and with US assistance, Japan achieved spectacular growth to become the second largest economy in the world, with a growth rate averaging 10% for four decades. This ended in the late 1990s when Japan suffered a major recession from which it has since been slowly recovering.[8]
Government and politics
The Imperial Family of Japan
US President George W. Bush speaking to a joint session of the Diet on 19 February 2002
More information on politics and government of Japan can be found at Politics of Japan, the main article in the Politics and government of Japan series.
Japan is a constitutional monarchy, although the powers the Emperor (天皇 tennō, literally "heavenly sovereign") wields is severely curtailed. He is defined by the Constitution of Japan as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". As a ceremonial figurehead he does not wield even emergency reserve powers. Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister, and other elected members of the Diet. Sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people by the constitution. Although not stated so, the emperor effectively acts as the head of state on diplomatic occasions. Akihito is the current emperor and the only reigning emperor in the world.
Japan's legislative organ is its bicameral parliament, the National Diet (Kokkai). The Diet consists of a House of Representatives (Lower House or Shūgi-in) containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every 4 years or when dissolved, and a House of Councillors (Upper House or Sangi'in) of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal adult (over 20 years old) suffrage, with a secret ballot for all elective offices. The liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived coalition government formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the liberal-socialist Democratic Party of Japan.
The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government of Japan, although the literal translation of the title is "Prime Minister of the Cabinet". The Prime Minister is appointed by the Emperor of Japan after being designated by the Diet from among its members, and must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in office. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet of Japan and appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The current Prime Minister of Japan, since September 2006, is Shinzo Abe. Although the Prime Minister of Japan is theoretically very powerful, his position is attenuated by the factional nature of Japanese politics and the tendency towards coalition government.
Although historically heavily influenced by Chinese law, Japanese law developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki. However the judicial system of Japan has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably France and Germany, since the late 19th century. For example, in 1896 the Japanese government established Minpō, the Civil Code, on the French model. With post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan.[9] Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature, the National Diet of Japan, with the rubber-stamp approval of the Emperor. Under the current constitution, the Emperor may not veto or otherwise refuse to approve a law passed by the Diet. Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: 438 Summary Courts, one District Court in each prefecture, nine High Courts and the Supreme Court of Japan. There is also one Family Court tied to each District Court. The main body of Japanese statutory law is a collection called the Six Codes (六法 roppō).
Foreign relations
Prime Minister Shinzo Abe (right) with US President George W. Bush (center) and South Korean President Roh Moo-Hyun at the 2006 APEC meeting
Main article: Foreign relations of Japan
Japan maintains close economic and military relations with its key ally the United States; therefore the US-Japan security alliance serves as the cornerstone of its foreign policy. For example, Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War with the United States and others. Japan is a member state of the United Nations and currently serving as a non-permanent Security Council member. It is also one of the "G4 nations" seeking permanent membership in the Security Council.
Japan is a member of the G8, the APEC, the "ASEAN Plus Three", and a participant in the East Asia Summit. It is also the world's second-largest donor of official development assistance, donating 0.19% of its GNP in 2004.[10] As member of the G8 Japan maintains cordial relations with most countries as a key trading partner.
Japan has several territorial disputes with its neighbors, including with Russia over the Kuril Islands, with South Korea over Dokdo (also called Takeshima and Liancourt Rocks), with the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) over the Senkaku Islands (Diaoyutai Islands), and with the People's Republic of China over the status of the Okinotori coral reefs. These disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of crude oil and natural gas.
Japan has an ongoing dispute with North Korea over its abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons and missile programs.
Military
Sailors aboard the JMSDF training vessel JDS Kashima stand in ranks.
Main articles: Japan Self-Defense Forces and Japan Defense Agency
Japan's military is restricted by Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan of 1946, which states that "Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes." Thus, Japan's current constitution prohibits the use of military force to wage war against other countries.
Japan's military is governed by the Japan Defense Agency (JDA) and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. The military budget of Japan is less than one percent of its GDP, though it is estimated to be the fourth largest in the world at $44.3 billion per year, as of 2005. The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations and the deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Prefectures of Japan, Cities of Japan, Towns of Japan, Villages of Japan, and List of Japanese cities by population
Tokyo
Yokohama
Osaka
Japan has forty-seven prefectures. Each has an elected governor and legislature, and an administrative bureaucracy. While there exist eight commonly defined regions of Japan, the prefecture is the largest administrative subdivision. The former city of Tokyo is further divided into twenty-three special wards, which have the same powers as cities.
The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns, and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions, and is expected to cut administrative costs.[11]
Japan has dozens of major cities, which play an important role in Japan's culture, heritage and economy. Those in the list below of the ten most populous are all prefectural capitals and Government Ordinance Cities.
Geography and climate
Japan from space, May 2003.Main article: Geography of Japan
Japan is a country of islands which extends along the Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are Hokkaidō, Honshū (the main island), Shikoku and Kyūshū. The Ryūkyū Islands, in south-west Japan, lies in a chain between China and Kyushū. In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the Japanese archipelago. Japan also claims the southern Kuril Islands (controlled by Russia), which are located to the north-east of Hokkaidō.
Japan is the thirtieth most densely populated country in the world. About 70% to 80% of the country is forested, mountainous,[12][13] and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use, due to the generally steep elevations, climate, and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground, and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-intensity tremors and occasional volcanic activity. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century. The most recent major quakes are the 2004 Chūetsu Earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous, and have been developed as resorts.
The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:
Hokkaidō: The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
Sea of Japan: On Honshū's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the Föhn wind phenomenon.
Central Highland: A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
Seto Inland Sea: The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the region from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
Sakura with Mount Fuji (highest point in Japan) and the Bullet Train in the foregroundPacific Ocean: The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
South-west Islands: The Ryūkyū Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common.
The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaidō in late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.
Japan is home to nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.
Economy
The Bank of Japan is the nation's central bank. Shown here is its Tokyo headquarters.Main article: Economy of Japan
Close government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, and a comparatively small defense allocation have helped Japan become the second largest economy in the world, after the United States, at around US$4.5 trillion in terms of nominal GDP and third after the United States and China if purchasing power parity is used. Japan's service sector accounts for about three-quarters of its total economic output. Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries. Japan's industrial strength is among the world's largest and technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemicals, textiles, and processed foods, and is home to leading multinational corporations and commercial brands in technology and machinery (see also list of Japanese companies).[14] Construction has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion dollar government contracts in the civil sector. Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called keiretsu (examples include Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Mitsui, Dai-Ichi Kangyo and Sanwa), powerful enterprise unions and shunto, the guarantee of lifetime employment (shushin koyo) in big corporations, and highly unionized blue-collar factories. Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.
The Tokyo Stock Exchange is the second largest in the world with market capitalization of more than US$4 trillion.In terms of financial sector, it is home to the world's largest bank,[15] the Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group [16], which has roughly US$1.7 trillion in assets[15] and the world's largest postal savings system and the largest holder of personal savings, the Japan Post that holds personal savings that are valued at around US$3.3 trillion. It is home to the world's second largest stock exchange, the Tokyo Stock Exchange, with a market capitalization of over US$4 trillion as of December 2006.[17]. It's also home to some of the largest financial services companies, business groups and banks. For instance several large keiretsus (business groups) and multinational companies such as Sony, Sumitomo, Mitsubishi and Toyota own billion- and trillion-dollar operating banks, investment groups and/or financial services such as Sumitomo Bank, Fuji Bank, Mitsubishi Bank, Toyota Financial Services, and Sony Financial Holdings. (see also list of Japanese banks).
The Post-war economic "miracle"
From the 1960s to the 1980s, overall real economic growth has been called a "miracle": a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s.[18] Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s, largely due to the after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the decceleration of the global economy.[14] However, the economy has shown strong signs of recovery since 2005. GDP growth for that year was 2.8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period.[19] Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor of growth.
Agriculture and fishing
Main article: Agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Japan
Because only 29% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation,[citation needed] a system of terrace farming is used to build in small areas. This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area. However, Japan's small agricultural sector is also highly subsidized and protected. Japan must import about 50%[20] of its requirements of grain and fodder crops other than rice, and relies on imports for most of its supply of meat.
In fishing, Japan is ranked second in the world behind China in tonnage of fish caught. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch.[14]
Infrastructure and transportation
Main article: Transportation in Japan
Japan is unique[citation needed] in that its electric power transmission runs at different frequencies in different parts of the country: 50 Hz in Tokyo and elsewhere east of the Fuji River, 60 Hz in Osaka and other parts west. The division was due to different technology imports for the initial plant construction; the eastern region imported Siemens AG technology (German) and the western region imported GE technology (US). The household power line voltage is constant 100 V throughout the nation.
Japan has 1,177,278 km of paved roadways, 173 airports, and 23,577 km of railways as of 2004.[14] Transportation is highly developed. Air transport is mostly operated by All Nippon Airways (ANA) and Japan Airlines (JAL). Railways are operated by Japan Railways among others. There are extensive international flights from many cities and countries to and from Japan.
International trade
See also: Energy production in Japan
Japan's main export partners are the United States 22.9%, China 13.4%, South Korea 7.8%, Taiwan 7.3% and Hong Kong 6.1% (for 2005). Japan's main exports are transport equipment, motor vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals.[14]
Japan has very limited natural resources to sustain economic development, since most of the islands are volcanic and mountainous. As a result it is dependent on other nations for most of its raw materials; thus it imports a wide variety of goods. Its main import partners are China 21%, U.S. 12,7%, Saudi Arabia 5.5%, UAE 4.9%, Australia 4.7%, South Korea 4.7% and Indonesia 4% (for 2005). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries. Overall, Japan's largest trading partner is China.[21]
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Japan
The ASIMO humanoid robot running.Japan is a leading nation in the fields of scientific research, technology, machinery, and medical research with the world's third largest budget for research and development at $130 billion,[22] after the United States and China with over 677,000 researchers.
Some of Japan's more important technological contributions are found in the fields of electronics, machinery, industrial robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals. Japan leads the world in robotics, having produced QRIO, ASIMO, and Aibo, and possesses more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of the world's industrial robots used for manufacturing.[23] It is also home to six of the world's 15 largest automobile manufacturers and is home to seven of the world 20 largest semiconductor sales leaders.
Japan has also made headway into aerospace research and space exploration. On October 1, 2003, three organizations were merged to form the new Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA): Japan's Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (or ISAS), the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan (NAL), and Japan's National Space Development Agency (NASDA).Before the merger, ISAS was responsible for space and planetary research, while NAL was focused on aviation research. NASDA, which was founded on October 1, 1969, had developed rockets, satellites, and also built the Japanese Experiment Module, which is slated to be launched and added to the International Space Station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2007 and 2008.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Japan
Shibuya crossing is one of the largest pedestrian crossings and shopping areas.Japan's population is estimated at around 127,463,611.[24] For the most part, Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homogeneous with only small populations of foreign workers; Zainichi Korean, Japanese Brazilians and others. Japan has indigenous minority groups such as the Ainu and Ryūkyūans, and social minority groups like the burakumin.
Japan has one of the highest life expectancy in the world, at 81.25 years of age as of 2006.[25] However, the Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war baby boom followed by a decrease in births in the latter part of the 20th century. In 2004, about 19.5% of the population was over the age of 65.[26] The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social security benefits such as the public pension plan. If its birth and death rates remain at the current levels, Japan's population has passed its peak and its population will continue to decline. It is expected to drop to 100 million by 2050, and to 64 million by 2100.[26]
Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[27] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.[28] Immigration, however, is not popular as recent increased crime rates are often attributed, both by the National Police Agency and in popular Japanese media, to the East Asian foreigners living in Japan.[29]
In 2005, Doudou Diene, United Nations Special Rapporteur, said that racism in Japan is "deep and profound" and that the government does not recognise the depth of the problem.[30] [31] Following an investigation lasting nine days, Diene concluded that racial discrimination and xenophobia in Japan affects three circles of discriminated groups: national minorities, descendants of former Japanese colonies and foreigners and migrants from other Asian countries and from the rest of the world.[32] Ethnic issues in Japan are improving[citation needed], however, so there is a narrow chance that if more foreigners enter the country, and decide to marry another foreigner or Japanese resident, this may increase the chance of the population growing again. It is also noted that many Japanese youth are increasingly preferring not to marry or have families as adults.[27]
Language
Main article: Japanese language
About 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.[citation needed] The Ryūkyūan languages, also part of the Japonic language family to which Japanese belongs, are spoken in Okinawa, but few children learn these languages. Ainu, the language of the indigenous minority in northern Japan, is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaidō. Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.
The Japanese language is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener.
Japanese incorporates many foreign elements. Japanese has borrowed or derived large amounts of vocabulary from Chinese. When non-Chinese foreign words are written in Japanese, they are usually done so in a separate alphabet called katakana. Since the end of World War II, Japanese has also extensively borrowed from English. The writing system uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified forms of Chinese characters), as well as the Roman alphabet and Arabic numerals.
Religion
The "floating" torii at Itsukushima Shrine.Main article: Religion in Japan
Around 84% of Japanese people profess to believe both Shinto (the indigenous religion of Japan) and Buddhism.[24] Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism from China have significantly influenced Japanese beliefs and mythology. Religion in Japan tends to be syncretic in nature, and this results in a variety of practices, such as parents and children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a Christian church and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. A minority (0.7%) profess to Christianity[24] and other religions (4.7%) like shamanism, Islam, and Hinduism.[citation needed] Since the mid-19th century, numerous religious sects (Shinshūkyō) have emerged.
Education
Main article: Education in Japan
Compulsory education was introduced into Japan in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration.[citation needed] Since 1947, compulsory education consists of elementary school and middle school, which lasts for 9 years (from age 6 to age 15).[citation needed] Almost all children[citation needed] continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and, according to basic statics of MEXT, 67.5% of high school graduates[citation needed] attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution in 2006. Japan's education is very competitive[citation needed] especially at the college level and it has prestigious[citation needed] and large universities such as University of Tokyo, University of Tohoku, Keio University, Waseda University, Kyoto University, Hitotsubashi University, and Doshisha University.
Health
Main article: Health care in Japan
In Japan, healthcare services are provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health care insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973,[citation needed] all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. Patients are free to select physicians or facilities of their choice.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Japan
A traditional Japanese dancer.Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jomon culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines influences from Asia, Europe, and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e, dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, tea ceremony, budō, architecture, gardens, swords), and cuisine.
Post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European culture which has led to the evolution of popular band music (called J-Pop). The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a typically Japanese comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan. Manga-influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have prospered since the 1980s.
Literature
Main article: Japanese literature
The earliest works include two history books the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, and a poetry book Man'yōshū in the eighth century, all written in Chinese characters. In the early days of the Heian period, the system of transcription known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was created as phonograms. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.[33] An account of Heian court life is given by The Pillow Book, written by Sei Shōnagon while The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki is sometimes called the world's first novel.
During the Edo Period, literature became not so much the field of the samurai aristocracy as that of the chōnin, the ordinary people. Yomihon, for example, became popular and reveals this profound change in the readership and authorship.[33]
The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms, during which Japanese literature integrated western influences. Natsume Soseki and Mori Ogai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Akutagawa Ryunosuke, Tanizaki Junichiro, Kawabata Yasunari, Mishima Yukio, and more recently, Murakami Haruki. Japan has two Nobel prize winning authors — Kawabata Yasunari (1968) and Oe Kenzaburo (1994).[33]
Music
Main article: Music of Japan
Japanese music is eclectic, having borrowed instruments, scales and styles from neighboring cultures. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the ninth and tenth centuries. The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the fourteenth century and the popular folk music, with the guitarlike shamisen, from the 16th.[34]
Western music, introduced in the late nineteenth century, now forms an integral part of the culture, as evident from the profusion of J-Pop artists. Modern Japanese music uses western instruments, scales and style.
Cuisine
Main article: Japanese cuisine
A basic, traditional Japanese meal consists of white Japanese rice with accompanying tsukemono pickles as appetizers; a bowl of miso soup;selected or combined seafood, meat, egg, and vegetable dishes known as okazu; and green tea. In a traditional Japanese breakfast, for example, the okazu may be a grilled fish. Foods, beverages, and condiments from Japan, such as sushi, sashimi, ramen, sake, wasabi, sukiyaki and teriyaki are recognized worldwide.
Sports and recreation
Sumo, a traditional Japanese sport.Main article: Sport in Japan
Beginning in the twelfth century, Japan developed traditional martial arts known as budō, which were popular among the warrior class. These include judō, karate and kendō. Sumo is sometimes considered Japan's national sport and is one of its most popular.[citation needed]
After the Meiji Restoration, many western sports were introduced and began to spread through the education system. These sports were initially stressed as a form of mental discipline, but Japanese have now come to enjoy them as recreational activities.
Baseball is the most popular ball game in Japan - the professional baseball league in Japan was established in 1936.[35] One of the most famous Japanese players in North American major league baseball is Suzuki Ichiro, who won an MVP Award. Concerning football, the professional soccer league in Japan was established in 1992. Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004, and Japan co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea. Golf is popular in Japan, as is auto racing, the Super GT sports car series and Formula Nippon formula racing.
Each year, Japan observes the second Monday in October as Health and Sports Day. The date, originally October 10, commemorates the opening day of the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Other major sporting events that Japan has hosted include the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo and the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano.
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Over 3,000 islands, the largest of which are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū, and Shikoku, make up the nation of Japan. Most of the islands are mountainous, and many are volcanic including the highest peak, Mount Fuji. Japan has the world's 10th largest population, with about 128 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, with over 30 million residents, is the largest metropolitan area in the world.
Archaeological research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the upper paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan begins with brief appearances in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from the outside world followed by long periods of isolation characterize Japan's history. Thus, its culture today is a mixture of outside influences and internal developments. Since adopting its constitution on May 3, 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament, the Diet, which is one of the oldest legislative bodies in Asia.
Japan is an economic world power with the world's second largest economy (by nominal GDP). It is also the world's largest international creditor and the sixth largest exporter and importer and a member of the United Nations, G8, and APEC.
The first signs of civilization on the Japanese Archipelago appeared around 10,000 BC with the Jomon culture, characterized by a mesolithic to neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer lifestyle of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of agriculture. Weaving was still unknown and clothes were often made of bark. The Jomon people made decorated clay vessels, however, often with plaited patterns. Some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world may be found in Japan.[1]
The Yayoi period, starting around the 3rd century BC, marked the influx of new practices such as wet-rice farming, iron and bronze-making, and a new style of pottery, brought by migrants from the Chinese mainland and the Korean peninsula. With the development of Yayoi culture, a predominantly agricultural society emerged on the Japanese archipelago.
The Japanese first appear in written history in 57 AD, in China's Book of Later Han, as "the people of Wa, formed from more than one hundred tribes." According to China's Book of Wei, the most powerful kingdom in 3rd century Japan was called Yamataikoku, which was ruled by the legendary Queen Himiko.
The Great Buddha at Tōdaiji, Nara, originally cast in 752
The Kofun period, from the 3rd century to the 7th century, saw the establishment of a dominant polity centered in the Yamato area whence arose the Japanese imperial lineage.
In the 6th century, the Korean kingdom of Baekje introduced Buddhism to Japan, and it was promoted by the ruling class. Prince Shōtoku devoted his efforts to the spread of Buddhism and Chinese culture and is credited with bringing relative peace to Japan through the proclamation of the Seventeen-article constitution.
Starting with the Taika Reform Edicts of 645, the Yamato court intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices and reorganized the government and the penal code based on the Chinese administrative structure of the time.[5] This paved the way for the dominance of Confucian philosophy in Japan until the 19th century. This period also saw the first use of the word Nihon (日本?) as a name for the emerging state.
The Nara period of the 8th century marked the first emergence of a strong Japanese state, centered around an imperial court in the city of Heijō-kyō. The imperial court then moved briefly to Nagaoka, and then to Heian-kyō (now Kyoto).
The beginning of Japanese historical writing culminated in the early 8th century with the massive chronicles, Kojiki (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and Nihonshoki (Chronicles of Japan, 720). According to these sources, Japan was founded in the 7th century BC by the ancestral Emperor Jimmu, a direct descendant of the Shinto deity Amaterasu. It is claimed that he started a line of emperors that remains unbroken to this day. However, historians believe the first emperor who actually existed was Emperor Ojin, though the date of his reign is uncertain.
In the Heian period, from 794 to 1185, a distinctly indigenous culture emerged, noted for its art, especially poetry and literature. In the early 11th century, Lady Murasaki wrote the world's oldest surviving novel, The Tale of Genji. The Fujiwara clan's regency dominated politics during this period.
Feudal era
The samurai Hasekura Tsunenaga, Japan's first official ambassador to the Americas and Europe, in 1615.
Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the rival Taira clan, Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed Shōgun and established a base of power in Kamakura near present-day Tokyo. After Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the Hōjō, came to rule as regents for the shoguns. The Kamakura shogunate managed to repel Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, with assistance from a storm that the Japanese interpreted as a kamikaze, or Divine Wind. The Kamakura shogunate lasted another fifty years and was eventually overthrown by Ashikaga Takauji in 1333. The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to manage the feudal warlords — the daimyo — and a civil war erupted. The Ōnin War (1467 to 1477) is generally regarded as the onset of the "Warring States" or Sengoku period.
During the 16th century, traders and missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating the Nanban ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West. Oda Nobunaga conquered numerous other daimyo by using European technology and firearms, and had almost unified the nation when he was assassinated in 1582. Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga and united the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi invaded Korea twice, but was thwarted by Korean and Ming Chinese forces. Following several defeats and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1597.
One of Japan's Red seal ships (1634), which were used for trade throughout Asia.
After Hideyoshi's death, Tokugawa Ieyasu utilized his position as the regent of Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori as well as the conflicts among loyalists of the Toyotomi clan, to gain the support of warlords. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shōgun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo).
After defeating Toyotomi clan, at the Siege of Osaka in 1614 and 1615, the Tokugawa clan became the rulers of Japan, setting up a centralized feudal system. The Tokugawa shogunate enacted a variety of measures to control the daimyo, among them the sankin-kōtai policy of enforced rotation between fiefs and attendance in Edo. In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period. This is often considered to be the height of Japan's medieval culture. The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued during this period through contacts with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku. Literally translated, this means "Japanese studies," though it more correctly is represented by the study of native Japan by the Japanese themselves.
Modern Japan
Samurai of the Satsuma clan, during the Boshin War period, circa 1867 - Photograph by Felice Beato.
On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa. The Boshin War of 1867-1868 led to the resignation of the shogunate, and the Meiji Restoration established a government centered around the emperor. Japan adopted numerous Western institutions, including a modern government, legal system, and military. A parliamentary system modeled after the British parliament was introduced, with Ito Hirobumi as the first Prime Minister in 1882.
The Meiji era reforms helped transform the Empire of Japan into a world power that embarked on a number of military conflicts to increase access to natural resources, with victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), which was the first time that an Asian country defeated an European imperial power. By 1910, Japan controlled Korea, and the southern half of Sakhalin.
The early 20th century saw a brief period of "Taisho democracy" overshadowed by the rise of Japanese expansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence and territorial holdings. Japan continued its expansionist policy by occupying Manchuria in 1931. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, later joining the Axis Powers in 1941.
Japan invaded China again, starting the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), and invaded Southeast Asia and islands in the Pacific Ocean. As a result of its aggression, the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor and declared war on the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. This brought the United States into World War II.
The 1945 atomic bombing of Nagasaki
During the course of the Pacific War, Japanese forces in occupied territory were neutralized. Strategic bombing of major cities like Tokyo and Osaka killed thousands of civilians. After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender.[7] The Japanese Instrument of Surrender was signed on September 2, 1945 (V-J Day). The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (on May 3, 1946) was convened to prosecute Japanese leaders for crimes against peace and humanity as well as war crimes such as the Nanking Massacre. Emperor Hirohito received immunity from prosecution and retained his position as emperor.
The war cost Japan millions of lives and left much of the country's industry and infrastructure destroyed. In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution, seeking international cooperation and emphasizing human rights and democratic practices. Official American occupation lasted until 1952 and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. Under a program of aggressive industrial development and with US assistance, Japan achieved spectacular growth to become the second largest economy in the world, with a growth rate averaging 10% for four decades. This ended in the late 1990s when Japan suffered a major recession from which it has since been slowly recovering.[8]
Government and politics
The Imperial Family of Japan
US President George W. Bush speaking to a joint session of the Diet on 19 February 2002
More information on politics and government of Japan can be found at Politics of Japan, the main article in the Politics and government of Japan series.
Japan is a constitutional monarchy, although the powers the Emperor (天皇 tennō, literally "heavenly sovereign") wields is severely curtailed. He is defined by the Constitution of Japan as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". As a ceremonial figurehead he does not wield even emergency reserve powers. Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister, and other elected members of the Diet. Sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people by the constitution. Although not stated so, the emperor effectively acts as the head of state on diplomatic occasions. Akihito is the current emperor and the only reigning emperor in the world.
Japan's legislative organ is its bicameral parliament, the National Diet (Kokkai). The Diet consists of a House of Representatives (Lower House or Shūgi-in) containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every 4 years or when dissolved, and a House of Councillors (Upper House or Sangi'in) of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal adult (over 20 years old) suffrage, with a secret ballot for all elective offices. The liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived coalition government formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the liberal-socialist Democratic Party of Japan.
The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government of Japan, although the literal translation of the title is "Prime Minister of the Cabinet". The Prime Minister is appointed by the Emperor of Japan after being designated by the Diet from among its members, and must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in office. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet of Japan and appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The current Prime Minister of Japan, since September 2006, is Shinzo Abe. Although the Prime Minister of Japan is theoretically very powerful, his position is attenuated by the factional nature of Japanese politics and the tendency towards coalition government.
Although historically heavily influenced by Chinese law, Japanese law developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki. However the judicial system of Japan has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably France and Germany, since the late 19th century. For example, in 1896 the Japanese government established Minpō, the Civil Code, on the French model. With post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan.[9] Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature, the National Diet of Japan, with the rubber-stamp approval of the Emperor. Under the current constitution, the Emperor may not veto or otherwise refuse to approve a law passed by the Diet. Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: 438 Summary Courts, one District Court in each prefecture, nine High Courts and the Supreme Court of Japan. There is also one Family Court tied to each District Court. The main body of Japanese statutory law is a collection called the Six Codes (六法 roppō).
Foreign relations
Prime Minister Shinzo Abe (right) with US President George W. Bush (center) and South Korean President Roh Moo-Hyun at the 2006 APEC meeting
Main article: Foreign relations of Japan
Japan maintains close economic and military relations with its key ally the United States; therefore the US-Japan security alliance serves as the cornerstone of its foreign policy. For example, Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War with the United States and others. Japan is a member state of the United Nations and currently serving as a non-permanent Security Council member. It is also one of the "G4 nations" seeking permanent membership in the Security Council.
Japan is a member of the G8, the APEC, the "ASEAN Plus Three", and a participant in the East Asia Summit. It is also the world's second-largest donor of official development assistance, donating 0.19% of its GNP in 2004.[10] As member of the G8 Japan maintains cordial relations with most countries as a key trading partner.
Japan has several territorial disputes with its neighbors, including with Russia over the Kuril Islands, with South Korea over Dokdo (also called Takeshima and Liancourt Rocks), with the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) over the Senkaku Islands (Diaoyutai Islands), and with the People's Republic of China over the status of the Okinotori coral reefs. These disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of crude oil and natural gas.
Japan has an ongoing dispute with North Korea over its abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons and missile programs.
Military
Sailors aboard the JMSDF training vessel JDS Kashima stand in ranks.
Main articles: Japan Self-Defense Forces and Japan Defense Agency
Japan's military is restricted by Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan of 1946, which states that "Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes." Thus, Japan's current constitution prohibits the use of military force to wage war against other countries.
Japan's military is governed by the Japan Defense Agency (JDA) and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force, and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force. The military budget of Japan is less than one percent of its GDP, though it is estimated to be the fourth largest in the world at $44.3 billion per year, as of 2005. The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations and the deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Prefectures of Japan, Cities of Japan, Towns of Japan, Villages of Japan, and List of Japanese cities by population
Tokyo
Yokohama
Osaka
Japan has forty-seven prefectures. Each has an elected governor and legislature, and an administrative bureaucracy. While there exist eight commonly defined regions of Japan, the prefecture is the largest administrative subdivision. The former city of Tokyo is further divided into twenty-three special wards, which have the same powers as cities.
The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns, and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions, and is expected to cut administrative costs.[11]
Japan has dozens of major cities, which play an important role in Japan's culture, heritage and economy. Those in the list below of the ten most populous are all prefectural capitals and Government Ordinance Cities.
Geography and climate
Japan from space, May 2003.Main article: Geography of Japan
Japan is a country of islands which extends along the Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are Hokkaidō, Honshū (the main island), Shikoku and Kyūshū. The Ryūkyū Islands, in south-west Japan, lies in a chain between China and Kyushū. In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the Japanese archipelago. Japan also claims the southern Kuril Islands (controlled by Russia), which are located to the north-east of Hokkaidō.
Japan is the thirtieth most densely populated country in the world. About 70% to 80% of the country is forested, mountainous,[12][13] and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use, due to the generally steep elevations, climate, and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground, and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-intensity tremors and occasional volcanic activity. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century. The most recent major quakes are the 2004 Chūetsu Earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous, and have been developed as resorts.
The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:
Hokkaidō: The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
Sea of Japan: On Honshū's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the Föhn wind phenomenon.
Central Highland: A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
Seto Inland Sea: The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the region from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
Sakura with Mount Fuji (highest point in Japan) and the Bullet Train in the foregroundPacific Ocean: The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
South-west Islands: The Ryūkyū Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common.
The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaidō in late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain.
Japan is home to nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands.
Economy
The Bank of Japan is the nation's central bank. Shown here is its Tokyo headquarters.Main article: Economy of Japan
Close government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, and a comparatively small defense allocation have helped Japan become the second largest economy in the world, after the United States, at around US$4.5 trillion in terms of nominal GDP and third after the United States and China if purchasing power parity is used. Japan's service sector accounts for about three-quarters of its total economic output. Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, and telecommunications are all major industries. Japan's industrial strength is among the world's largest and technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemicals, textiles, and processed foods, and is home to leading multinational corporations and commercial brands in technology and machinery (see also list of Japanese companies).[14] Construction has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion dollar government contracts in the civil sector. Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called keiretsu (examples include Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Mitsui, Dai-Ichi Kangyo and Sanwa), powerful enterprise unions and shunto, the guarantee of lifetime employment (shushin koyo) in big corporations, and highly unionized blue-collar factories. Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.
The Tokyo Stock Exchange is the second largest in the world with market capitalization of more than US$4 trillion.In terms of financial sector, it is home to the world's largest bank,[15] the Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group [16], which has roughly US$1.7 trillion in assets[15] and the world's largest postal savings system and the largest holder of personal savings, the Japan Post that holds personal savings that are valued at around US$3.3 trillion. It is home to the world's second largest stock exchange, the Tokyo Stock Exchange, with a market capitalization of over US$4 trillion as of December 2006.[17]. It's also home to some of the largest financial services companies, business groups and banks. For instance several large keiretsus (business groups) and multinational companies such as Sony, Sumitomo, Mitsubishi and Toyota own billion- and trillion-dollar operating banks, investment groups and/or financial services such as Sumitomo Bank, Fuji Bank, Mitsubishi Bank, Toyota Financial Services, and Sony Financial Holdings. (see also list of Japanese banks).
The Post-war economic "miracle"
From the 1960s to the 1980s, overall real economic growth has been called a "miracle": a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s.[18] Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s, largely due to the after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the decceleration of the global economy.[14] However, the economy has shown strong signs of recovery since 2005. GDP growth for that year was 2.8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period.[19] Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor of growth.
Agriculture and fishing
Main article: Agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Japan
Because only 29% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation,[citation needed] a system of terrace farming is used to build in small areas. This results in one of the world's highest levels of crop yields per unit area. However, Japan's small agricultural sector is also highly subsidized and protected. Japan must import about 50%[20] of its requirements of grain and fodder crops other than rice, and relies on imports for most of its supply of meat.
In fishing, Japan is ranked second in the world behind China in tonnage of fish caught. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch.[14]
Infrastructure and transportation
Main article: Transportation in Japan
Japan is unique[citation needed] in that its electric power transmission runs at different frequencies in different parts of the country: 50 Hz in Tokyo and elsewhere east of the Fuji River, 60 Hz in Osaka and other parts west. The division was due to different technology imports for the initial plant construction; the eastern region imported Siemens AG technology (German) and the western region imported GE technology (US). The household power line voltage is constant 100 V throughout the nation.
Japan has 1,177,278 km of paved roadways, 173 airports, and 23,577 km of railways as of 2004.[14] Transportation is highly developed. Air transport is mostly operated by All Nippon Airways (ANA) and Japan Airlines (JAL). Railways are operated by Japan Railways among others. There are extensive international flights from many cities and countries to and from Japan.
International trade
See also: Energy production in Japan
Japan's main export partners are the United States 22.9%, China 13.4%, South Korea 7.8%, Taiwan 7.3% and Hong Kong 6.1% (for 2005). Japan's main exports are transport equipment, motor vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals.[14]
Japan has very limited natural resources to sustain economic development, since most of the islands are volcanic and mountainous. As a result it is dependent on other nations for most of its raw materials; thus it imports a wide variety of goods. Its main import partners are China 21%, U.S. 12,7%, Saudi Arabia 5.5%, UAE 4.9%, Australia 4.7%, South Korea 4.7% and Indonesia 4% (for 2005). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries. Overall, Japan's largest trading partner is China.[21]
Science and technology
Main article: Science and technology in Japan
The ASIMO humanoid robot running.Japan is a leading nation in the fields of scientific research, technology, machinery, and medical research with the world's third largest budget for research and development at $130 billion,[22] after the United States and China with over 677,000 researchers.
Some of Japan's more important technological contributions are found in the fields of electronics, machinery, industrial robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals. Japan leads the world in robotics, having produced QRIO, ASIMO, and Aibo, and possesses more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of the world's industrial robots used for manufacturing.[23] It is also home to six of the world's 15 largest automobile manufacturers and is home to seven of the world 20 largest semiconductor sales leaders.
Japan has also made headway into aerospace research and space exploration. On October 1, 2003, three organizations were merged to form the new Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA): Japan's Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (or ISAS), the National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan (NAL), and Japan's National Space Development Agency (NASDA).Before the merger, ISAS was responsible for space and planetary research, while NAL was focused on aviation research. NASDA, which was founded on October 1, 1969, had developed rockets, satellites, and also built the Japanese Experiment Module, which is slated to be launched and added to the International Space Station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2007 and 2008.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Japan
Shibuya crossing is one of the largest pedestrian crossings and shopping areas.Japan's population is estimated at around 127,463,611.[24] For the most part, Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homogeneous with only small populations of foreign workers; Zainichi Korean, Japanese Brazilians and others. Japan has indigenous minority groups such as the Ainu and Ryūkyūans, and social minority groups like the burakumin.
Japan has one of the highest life expectancy in the world, at 81.25 years of age as of 2006.[25] However, the Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war baby boom followed by a decrease in births in the latter part of the 20th century. In 2004, about 19.5% of the population was over the age of 65.[26] The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social security benefits such as the public pension plan. If its birth and death rates remain at the current levels, Japan's population has passed its peak and its population will continue to decline. It is expected to drop to 100 million by 2050, and to 64 million by 2100.[26]
Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[27] Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population.[28] Immigration, however, is not popular as recent increased crime rates are often attributed, both by the National Police Agency and in popular Japanese media, to the East Asian foreigners living in Japan.[29]
In 2005, Doudou Diene, United Nations Special Rapporteur, said that racism in Japan is "deep and profound" and that the government does not recognise the depth of the problem.[30] [31] Following an investigation lasting nine days, Diene concluded that racial discrimination and xenophobia in Japan affects three circles of discriminated groups: national minorities, descendants of former Japanese colonies and foreigners and migrants from other Asian countries and from the rest of the world.[32] Ethnic issues in Japan are improving[citation needed], however, so there is a narrow chance that if more foreigners enter the country, and decide to marry another foreigner or Japanese resident, this may increase the chance of the population growing again. It is also noted that many Japanese youth are increasingly preferring not to marry or have families as adults.[27]
Language
Main article: Japanese language
About 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language.[citation needed] The Ryūkyūan languages, also part of the Japonic language family to which Japanese belongs, are spoken in Okinawa, but few children learn these languages. Ainu, the language of the indigenous minority in northern Japan, is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaidō. Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English.
The Japanese language is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener.
Japanese incorporates many foreign elements. Japanese has borrowed or derived large amounts of vocabulary from Chinese. When non-Chinese foreign words are written in Japanese, they are usually done so in a separate alphabet called katakana. Since the end of World War II, Japanese has also extensively borrowed from English. The writing system uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified forms of Chinese characters), as well as the Roman alphabet and Arabic numerals.
Religion
The "floating" torii at Itsukushima Shrine.Main article: Religion in Japan
Around 84% of Japanese people profess to believe both Shinto (the indigenous religion of Japan) and Buddhism.[24] Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism from China have significantly influenced Japanese beliefs and mythology. Religion in Japan tends to be syncretic in nature, and this results in a variety of practices, such as parents and children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a Christian church and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. A minority (0.7%) profess to Christianity[24] and other religions (4.7%) like shamanism, Islam, and Hinduism.[citation needed] Since the mid-19th century, numerous religious sects (Shinshūkyō) have emerged.
Education
Main article: Education in Japan
Compulsory education was introduced into Japan in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration.[citation needed] Since 1947, compulsory education consists of elementary school and middle school, which lasts for 9 years (from age 6 to age 15).[citation needed] Almost all children[citation needed] continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and, according to basic statics of MEXT, 67.5% of high school graduates[citation needed] attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution in 2006. Japan's education is very competitive[citation needed] especially at the college level and it has prestigious[citation needed] and large universities such as University of Tokyo, University of Tohoku, Keio University, Waseda University, Kyoto University, Hitotsubashi University, and Doshisha University.
Health
Main article: Health care in Japan
In Japan, healthcare services are provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health care insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973,[citation needed] all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. Patients are free to select physicians or facilities of their choice.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Japan
A traditional Japanese dancer.Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jomon culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines influences from Asia, Europe, and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e, dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, tea ceremony, budō, architecture, gardens, swords), and cuisine.
Post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European culture which has led to the evolution of popular band music (called J-Pop). The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a typically Japanese comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan. Manga-influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have prospered since the 1980s.
Literature
Main article: Japanese literature
The earliest works include two history books the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, and a poetry book Man'yōshū in the eighth century, all written in Chinese characters. In the early days of the Heian period, the system of transcription known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was created as phonograms. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative.[33] An account of Heian court life is given by The Pillow Book, written by Sei Shōnagon while The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki is sometimes called the world's first novel.
During the Edo Period, literature became not so much the field of the samurai aristocracy as that of the chōnin, the ordinary people. Yomihon, for example, became popular and reveals this profound change in the readership and authorship.[33]
The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms, during which Japanese literature integrated western influences. Natsume Soseki and Mori Ogai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Akutagawa Ryunosuke, Tanizaki Junichiro, Kawabata Yasunari, Mishima Yukio, and more recently, Murakami Haruki. Japan has two Nobel prize winning authors — Kawabata Yasunari (1968) and Oe Kenzaburo (1994).[33]
Music
Main article: Music of Japan
Japanese music is eclectic, having borrowed instruments, scales and styles from neighboring cultures. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the ninth and tenth centuries. The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the fourteenth century and the popular folk music, with the guitarlike shamisen, from the 16th.[34]
Western music, introduced in the late nineteenth century, now forms an integral part of the culture, as evident from the profusion of J-Pop artists. Modern Japanese music uses western instruments, scales and style.
Cuisine
Main article: Japanese cuisine
A basic, traditional Japanese meal consists of white Japanese rice with accompanying tsukemono pickles as appetizers; a bowl of miso soup;selected or combined seafood, meat, egg, and vegetable dishes known as okazu; and green tea. In a traditional Japanese breakfast, for example, the okazu may be a grilled fish. Foods, beverages, and condiments from Japan, such as sushi, sashimi, ramen, sake, wasabi, sukiyaki and teriyaki are recognized worldwide.
Sports and recreation
Sumo, a traditional Japanese sport.Main article: Sport in Japan
Beginning in the twelfth century, Japan developed traditional martial arts known as budō, which were popular among the warrior class. These include judō, karate and kendō. Sumo is sometimes considered Japan's national sport and is one of its most popular.[citation needed]
After the Meiji Restoration, many western sports were introduced and began to spread through the education system. These sports were initially stressed as a form of mental discipline, but Japanese have now come to enjoy them as recreational activities.
Baseball is the most popular ball game in Japan - the professional baseball league in Japan was established in 1936.[35] One of the most famous Japanese players in North American major league baseball is Suzuki Ichiro, who won an MVP Award. Concerning football, the professional soccer league in Japan was established in 1992. Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004, and Japan co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea. Golf is popular in Japan, as is auto racing, the Super GT sports car series and Formula Nippon formula racing.
Each year, Japan observes the second Monday in October as Health and Sports Day. The date, originally October 10, commemorates the opening day of the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Other major sporting events that Japan has hosted include the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo and the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano.
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